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Introduction

Antony Polonsky

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 13: Focusing on the Holocaust and its Aftermath

This introductory chapter provides an overview of how Poland was one of the principal areas where the Nazis attempted to carry out their planned genocide of European Jewry. It was there that the ... More

This introductory chapter provides an overview of how Poland was one of the principal areas where the Nazis attempted to carry out their planned genocide of European Jewry. It was there that the major death camps were established and that Jews were brought from all over Nazi-occupied Europe to be gassed, above all in Auschwitz, where at least 1 million lost their lives in this way. There is no more controversial topic in the history of the Jews in Poland than the question of the degree of responsibility borne by Polish society for the fact that such a small proportion of Polish Jewry escaped the Nazi mass murderers. The primary responsibility clearly lies with the Nazis. However, the recognition of the primary role of the Germans in the genocide has not prevented bitter arguments over Polish behaviour during the Second World War. Jews have harshly criticized what they see as Polish indifference to the fate of the Jews and the willingness of a minority to aid the Nazis or to take advantage of the new conditions to profit at Jewish expense.Less

So Many Questions: The Development of Holocaust Education in Post-Communist Poland

Olanta Ambrosewicz-Jacobs

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 20: Making Holocaust Memory

This chapter looks at the results of a national survey of Polish students in 1998, which indicates that the students' knowledge about the Holocaust is characterized by high levels of ignorance, ... More

This chapter looks at the results of a national survey of Polish students in 1998, which indicates that the students' knowledge about the Holocaust is characterized by high levels of ignorance, misperception, confusion, and defensiveness. It mentions that students disagreed that Jews suffered more than Poles during the Second World War and inflated the degree of Polish assistance to Jews. It also talks about educators in post-communist Poland that responded to the students by undertaking a significant expansion of Holocaust education. The chapter presents abundant evidence of the promising development in schools and university departments, including newly founded initiatives throughout Polish civil society. It cites how the Stockholm Declaration was signed by the Polish government in January 2000 to allow schools to teach the Holocaust in schools.Less

Polish-Jewish Relations and the January Uprising: The Polish Perspective

Magdalena Opalska

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 1: Poles and Jews: Renewing the Dialogue

This chapter focuses on Polish–Jewish relations and the January uprising. The memory of the pro-Polish orientation of the Jews in the January uprising remained alive throughout the 19th and in the ... More

This chapter focuses on Polish–Jewish relations and the January uprising. The memory of the pro-Polish orientation of the Jews in the January uprising remained alive throughout the 19th and in the early 20th centuries. The legend of patriotic ‘Poles of Mosaic faith’, which crystallized in the 1860s as a part of a broader romantic myth, gained a lasting place in literary tradition. The positive evaluation of the Jewish role generally remained artistically and ideologically rooted in the traditional romantic worldview. From that point of view, many later works can be seen as fossils of Polish romanticism. As the character of Polish–Jewish relations deteriorated, the Jewish legend of 1863 was continually revised in retrospect and it evolved in an increasingly negative fashion. Projecting new problems upon the past, Polish literature of the realist and modernist periods emphasized the economic aspect of Polish–Jewish relations and portrayed Jewish political loyalties with growing ambivalence. Echoing complex structural changes in post-insurrectionary Polish society as a whole, changes which brought about the revision of the larger myth of 1863, the evolution of its Jewish aspect followed closely the course of the debate on the so-called ‘Jewish question’.Less

No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry, 1935‒1939

Emanuel Melzer

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 13: Focusing on the Holocaust and its Aftermath

This chapter looks at Emmanuel Melzer's No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry, 1935–1939 (1997). The first edition of this book, written as a doctoral dissertation, was published in 1982 in ... More

This chapter looks at Emmanuel Melzer's No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry, 1935–1939 (1997). The first edition of this book, written as a doctoral dissertation, was published in 1982 in Hebrew. The present edition was condensed but also updated, now that political changes have made it possible to study documents from Polish archives (notably Archiwum Akt Nowych in Warsaw). Melzer presents the basic political and economic problems of Jewish society in Poland; the attitudes of the government, political parties, and Polish society towards Jews; and the responses of the Jewish leaders, political parties, and ordinary people. Several of these topics have been treated in books and articles published by both Polish and Jewish historians and covering specific areas of Polish and Jewish history. The book's merit is that it analyses a complex of issues and takes into consideration different elements of the changes going on not only in Poland, but in the whole of Europe as well. Such analysis can help readers to understand the situation of Jews in Poland and indicate the main directions for future studies.Less

The Polish–Lithuanian Background

Antony Polonsky

in Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History

This chapter discusses the emergence and rapid expansion of the Jewish community of Poland–Lithuania. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Jewish community of Poland–Lithuania was the ... More

This chapter discusses the emergence and rapid expansion of the Jewish community of Poland–Lithuania. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Jewish community of Poland–Lithuania was the largest in the world, the result of the establishment of a new geography of the Jewish world that had started at the end of the thirteenth century. This was primarily a consequence of the worsening situation of the Jews in the countries of western and central Europe. At the same time, new opportunities opened up for Jews in the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The situation of Jews in pre-modern Poland–Lithuania had a paradoxical character. On the one hand, they were the representatives of a despised minority whose religious beliefs were regarded not only as false, but as harmful to the society around them. On the other hand, they occupied a position in Polish–Lithuanian society that was recognized by law and that gave them a certain amount of economic leverage and security.Less

Some Methodological Problems of the Study of Jewish History in Poland Between the Two World Wars

Jerzy Tomaszewski

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 1: Poles and Jews: Renewing the Dialogue

This chapter identifies some methodological problems of the study of Jewish history in Poland between the two World Wars. The growing public interest in the history of Polish Jews between the wars ... More

This chapter identifies some methodological problems of the study of Jewish history in Poland between the two World Wars. The growing public interest in the history of Polish Jews between the wars has been the reason for the publication of many books and articles. Some are based on only a superficial survey, others present a deep and penetrating analysis of specific problems. This body of literature deserves methodological consideration, together with a critical review of the most important sources, so that some queries, doubts and suggestions can be raised. During at least the past hundred years, a tradition developed in some Jewish and Polish political circles of treating the Jews as a kind of alien body within Polish society. This attitude can also often be observed in contemporary historical studies, despite the authors' declared intentions. This can partly be explained in terms of the distant past, when Jews constituted a distinctly different class of people with its own legal status and institutions, but there is no reason to maintain such an approach when investigating the history of the 20th century.Less

Warsaw before 1905: One City, Many Stories

in Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry

This chapter presents a historical analysis of the city of Warsaw, the city's Jewish residents, their Polish neighbors, and the Russian imperial context. It charts Warsaw's modest beginnings to its ... More

This chapter presents a historical analysis of the city of Warsaw, the city's Jewish residents, their Polish neighbors, and the Russian imperial context. It charts Warsaw's modest beginnings to its growth as an industrial, commercial, and financial center, and then discusses the key developments in Polish society, the rise of political organizations and institutions, and the changing visions of community and nation. It also discusses the various attempts by Russian government officials to wield control over Warsaw and its Jewish residents. The chapter concludes with a brief history of the Revolution of 1905 throughout the Russian empire.Less

Polish Jews during and after the Kielce Pogrom: Reports from the Communist Archives

Joanna Michlic-coren

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 13: Focusing on the Holocaust and its Aftermath

This chapter examines the Kielce pogrom. On July 4, 1946, the most horrifying outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in post-war Poland took place in Kielce. On that day, ordinary citizens of this central ... More

This chapter examines the Kielce pogrom. On July 4, 1946, the most horrifying outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in post-war Poland took place in Kielce. On that day, ordinary citizens of this central Polish town, together with soldiers and militiamen, murdered forty Polish Jews and injured more than a hundred. This was not an isolated act of anti-Jewish violence in this early post-war period, but one of many such events which took place between 1945 and 1947. Nevertheless, it was striking because of its dimensions, because of the brutality with which it was accompanied, and because of the participation of local forces representing the new communist authority. The Kielce pogrom was the most powerful indicator that Jews were not to be welcomed to restore their lives among the ethnic Polish population. The chapter then assesses the extent to which anti-Jewish attitudes were prevalent among Polish society during and after the Kielce pogrom.Less

The Changes in the Attitude of Polish Society Toward the Jews in the 18th Century

Jacob Goldberg

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 1: Poles and Jews: Renewing the Dialogue

This chapter evaluates the changes in the attitude of Polish society toward the Jews in the 18th century. The transformations in the social structure, politics and culture of 18th-century Poland had ... More

This chapter evaluates the changes in the attitude of Polish society toward the Jews in the 18th century. The transformations in the social structure, politics and culture of 18th-century Poland had their impact upon the evolution of the predominant attitudes of Polish society towards the Jews. The large numbers of the latter constituted in the second half of the century the largest concentration of Jews in the world. They amounted to about ten per cent of the country's population, which means that their numbers roughly equalled those of the szlachta. This is why in the last century of the Commonwealth's existence, the demographic factor determined Polish attitudes towards the Jews far more than ever before. However, the growth in the demographic potential of the Jewish population coincided with the impact of the ideas of the Enlightenment, with the result that the two factors compounded one another in rendering all problems concerning the Jews highly visible and in considerably influencing the designs for social and political reforms at the time of the Four-Year Diet.Less

Psychological Determinants of the Threat of Terrorism and Preferred Approaches to Counterterrorism: The Case of Poland

Katarzyna Jaśko, Małgorzata Kossowska, and Maciej Sekerdej

in The Political Psychology of Terrorism Fears

The aim of this chapter is to apply the knowledge about psychological mechanisms that influence terrorism fear to Polish society. First, we review data illustrating thelevel of terrorism fear in ... More

The aim of this chapter is to apply the knowledge about psychological mechanisms that influence terrorism fear to Polish society. First, we review data illustrating thelevel of terrorism fear in Polish society and compare it to data obtained in other countries. Then, we present research on the effects of the perception of terrorism, ideological factors, social trust and emotionality on the experience of fear and preferred courses of counterterrorism actions. We aim to demonstrate how those universal mechanisms translate into specific reactions present in Polish society. We also discuss the possible specificity of this context in comparison to other societies.Less

Julian Tuwim’s Strategy for Survival as a Polish Jewish Poet

Giovanna Tomassucci

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 30: Jewish Education in Eastern Europe

This chapter focuses on Julian Tuwim, who presented his literary alter ego from the start of his poetic career as wandering about the city in search of spontaneous adventures, a twentieth-century ... More

This chapter focuses on Julian Tuwim, who presented his literary alter ego from the start of his poetic career as wandering about the city in search of spontaneous adventures, a twentieth-century flâneur with aimless time on his hands. It explains how Tuwim's 'idyllic walk' changed into a sad and crazy meandering that left sluggish footprints behind. It also describes Tuwim's alter ego as a man of the streets that does not belong to any specific environment and that observes urban life, sometimes delighted by his surroundings, sometimes critical of them. The chapter recounts how Tuwim performed a voluntary balancing act, living his life in between the Polish literary tradition and the world of the European avant-garde and in between Polish and Jewish society. It refers to the Polish society of Jewish origin that struggled with their identity as a result of strong social pressures which refused them the right to define themselves as multi-ethnic.Less

Żydzi: A to Polska właśnie

Jerzy Tomaszewski

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 12: Focusing on Galicia: Jews, Poles and Ukrainians 1772-1918

This chapter considers a series of books, A to Polska właśnie (This is Indeed Poland). These books introduce their readers to various issues of interest to anyone studying Polish society. The chapter ... More

This chapter considers a series of books, A to Polska właśnie (This is Indeed Poland). These books introduce their readers to various issues of interest to anyone studying Polish society. The chapter focuses on the volume Żydzi (The Jews), in particular, as it is the first to discuss an important group among Poland's population. The volume covers the period up to the second half of the eighteenth century, political and social problems from the second half of the eighteenth century until the end of the nineteenth, Jewish culture and religion in the nineteenth century, the period from the First World War until 1939, the Holocaust, and Jews in Poland after the Second World War. The chapter contends that this book should be regarded not as just one more study about Polish Jews, but as making a singular contribution to the promotion of knowledge about Jewish traditions, culture, and history in Poland.Less

Black is Black

Stanisław Musiał and Gwido Zlatkes

in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 13: Focusing on the Holocaust and its Aftermath

This chapter investigates how Poles react to the Revd Henryk Jankowski's antisemitic statements. If in any Western country, a cleric (a Catholic priest as well known as the Revd Jankowski) presented ... More

This chapter investigates how Poles react to the Revd Henryk Jankowski's antisemitic statements. If in any Western country, a cleric (a Catholic priest as well known as the Revd Jankowski) presented such antisemitic opinions, many people of good will would protest in the streets. In Poland, it is still impossible. Though in Polish society, sensitivity and solidarity seem to be awakening today, they express themselves in only one context: where an exceptionally hideous murder has been committed. The chapter argues that in Poland, it will be a long time before antisemitic excesses or statements will get people moving. After all that happened in the land at the hands of the Nazis, there is still no social awareness that antisemitism is deadly by its nature, and in every form, even if often not directly or immediately. In this regard, the past is taking its toll: not long ago the subject of antisemitism was taboo, and to be a patriot meant, in the interpretation of the ruling Communist Party, to be anti-Zionist, which in practice equalled being an antisemite.Less