R. Darren Gobert
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780804786386
- eISBN:
- 9780804788267
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804786386.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
This chapter concerns playwriting and dramatic theory after Descartes. It demonstrates how the much-discussed problem of dramatic catharsis originates in an incommensurability produced by ...
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This chapter concerns playwriting and dramatic theory after Descartes. It demonstrates how the much-discussed problem of dramatic catharsis originates in an incommensurability produced by Cartesianism, since the universal experience of pity and fear theorized by Aristotle cannot be reconciled with an audience of individualized subjects. Pierre Corneille responded to this incommensurability in Nicomède, whose script is analyzed alongside two of its performances: at the Hôtel de Bourgogne in 1651, and at the Louvre in 1658. Corneille reconfigured tragedy in order to foreground wonder, the precise emotion that Descartes located at the center of his emotional physics and moral philosophy. These Cartesian innovations, theorized in Corneille's copious theoretical writings, were in turn mimicked in English theater and dramatic theory of the period, especially that of John Dryden, whose essays "Of Dramatick Poesy" and "Conquest of Granada" are discussed.Less
This chapter concerns playwriting and dramatic theory after Descartes. It demonstrates how the much-discussed problem of dramatic catharsis originates in an incommensurability produced by Cartesianism, since the universal experience of pity and fear theorized by Aristotle cannot be reconciled with an audience of individualized subjects. Pierre Corneille responded to this incommensurability in Nicomède, whose script is analyzed alongside two of its performances: at the Hôtel de Bourgogne in 1651, and at the Louvre in 1658. Corneille reconfigured tragedy in order to foreground wonder, the precise emotion that Descartes located at the center of his emotional physics and moral philosophy. These Cartesian innovations, theorized in Corneille's copious theoretical writings, were in turn mimicked in English theater and dramatic theory of the period, especially that of John Dryden, whose essays "Of Dramatick Poesy" and "Conquest of Granada" are discussed.
Richard Parish
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780197265666
- eISBN:
- 9780191771927
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197265666.003.0009
- Subject:
- History, World Modern History
The most important verse paraphrase of the Imitation of Christ in 17th-century France was written by the dramatist Pierre Corneille. In his paratexts he discusses the difficulties he has encountered ...
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The most important verse paraphrase of the Imitation of Christ in 17th-century France was written by the dramatist Pierre Corneille. In his paratexts he discusses the difficulties he has encountered in the project, which expands on the original by including engravings, many of which illustrate episodes from the lives of saints. One such is Theodora, who is the subject of his closely contemporary martyr tragedy, Théodore. But here too he encountered difficulties, in the context of bienséance, from objections expressed to the prostitution with which the eponym is threatened. In a different idiom, the Jesuit priest Jean-Joseph Surin, seeing his role as exorcist as another kind of imitation of Christ, records his ordeal in two autobiographical works, one of which moves progressively into stylistic incoherence. Finally, Bossuet engages in the polemic surrounding a further possible implication of the term, in the form of the Catholic doctrine of the Real Presence.Less
The most important verse paraphrase of the Imitation of Christ in 17th-century France was written by the dramatist Pierre Corneille. In his paratexts he discusses the difficulties he has encountered in the project, which expands on the original by including engravings, many of which illustrate episodes from the lives of saints. One such is Theodora, who is the subject of his closely contemporary martyr tragedy, Théodore. But here too he encountered difficulties, in the context of bienséance, from objections expressed to the prostitution with which the eponym is threatened. In a different idiom, the Jesuit priest Jean-Joseph Surin, seeing his role as exorcist as another kind of imitation of Christ, records his ordeal in two autobiographical works, one of which moves progressively into stylistic incoherence. Finally, Bossuet engages in the polemic surrounding a further possible implication of the term, in the form of the Catholic doctrine of the Real Presence.
Juliette Cherbuliez
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- January 2021
- ISBN:
- 9780823287826
- eISBN:
- 9780823290345
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823287826.003.0003
- Subject:
- Literature, Criticism/Theory
Chapter 1 serves as the cornerstone of this book, against which all the other chapters can be read. It explores a singular play, Pierre Corneille’s 1634 Médée. Often read as generic precursor or ...
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Chapter 1 serves as the cornerstone of this book, against which all the other chapters can be read. It explores a singular play, Pierre Corneille’s 1634 Médée. Often read as generic precursor or holdover, as failed experiment or primitive attempt, Médée is utterly unique for its era in its subject matter and politics. This chapter shows how its Médée is framed not by excess, passion, or inconstancy, but by moderation, knowledge, and attachment, in both positive and negative forms. Médée’s own “self” is a surface self, existing in counter-distinction to the complex self-possessed individual grounded in an interior, the hallmark of the eighteenth century. The contrast between the Medean surface self and the Medean art of destruction as one of cleaving to and cleaving from compels a meditation on how the self emerges in relation to others and what is sacrificed when we see the self as autonomous. Analogously, instead of seeing Médée as Corneille’s first tragedy, and so a primitive or premature form of what will come after it, this reading positions it at the undisclosed heart of the tragic project, as it reverberates in both its past and its future.Less
Chapter 1 serves as the cornerstone of this book, against which all the other chapters can be read. It explores a singular play, Pierre Corneille’s 1634 Médée. Often read as generic precursor or holdover, as failed experiment or primitive attempt, Médée is utterly unique for its era in its subject matter and politics. This chapter shows how its Médée is framed not by excess, passion, or inconstancy, but by moderation, knowledge, and attachment, in both positive and negative forms. Médée’s own “self” is a surface self, existing in counter-distinction to the complex self-possessed individual grounded in an interior, the hallmark of the eighteenth century. The contrast between the Medean surface self and the Medean art of destruction as one of cleaving to and cleaving from compels a meditation on how the self emerges in relation to others and what is sacrificed when we see the self as autonomous. Analogously, instead of seeing Médée as Corneille’s first tragedy, and so a primitive or premature form of what will come after it, this reading positions it at the undisclosed heart of the tragic project, as it reverberates in both its past and its future.
John Watkins
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9781501707575
- eISBN:
- 9781501708527
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9781501707575.003.0007
- Subject:
- Literature, Early and Medieval Literature
This chapter examines how war affected interdynastic marriage in seventeenth-century France. By late seventeenth century, the hope for European peace had lost its foundations in a shared ...
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This chapter examines how war affected interdynastic marriage in seventeenth-century France. By late seventeenth century, the hope for European peace had lost its foundations in a shared sacramentology and confidence in women's intercessions. When discrete national historiographies celebrating nation-states rather than dynasties appeared, their writers cast the women whose marriages bound Europe in a single family as tragic victims of their fathers' ambitions and husbands' infidelities. This chapter analyzes how French drama registered the personal and cultural impact of marriage diplomacy's declining prestige by focusing on Pierre Corneille's Horace and Tite et Bérénice, as well as Jean Racine's Andromaque and Bérénice. It also discusses two treaties, the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees and the 1670 Treaty of Dover.Less
This chapter examines how war affected interdynastic marriage in seventeenth-century France. By late seventeenth century, the hope for European peace had lost its foundations in a shared sacramentology and confidence in women's intercessions. When discrete national historiographies celebrating nation-states rather than dynasties appeared, their writers cast the women whose marriages bound Europe in a single family as tragic victims of their fathers' ambitions and husbands' infidelities. This chapter analyzes how French drama registered the personal and cultural impact of marriage diplomacy's declining prestige by focusing on Pierre Corneille's Horace and Tite et Bérénice, as well as Jean Racine's Andromaque and Bérénice. It also discusses two treaties, the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees and the 1670 Treaty of Dover.
Ronald Schechter
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780226499574
- eISBN:
- 9780226499604
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226499604.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, European Early Modern History
The positive emotional connotations of the word “terror” were enhanced by eighteenth-century theater criticism, which used the standard of terror when judging tragedies. Drawing (often loosely) on ...
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The positive emotional connotations of the word “terror” were enhanced by eighteenth-century theater criticism, which used the standard of terror when judging tragedies. Drawing (often loosely) on Aristotle, writers praised tragedies for instilling terror and pity in spectators and discounted tragedies that failed to stimulate these feelings. Often, however, and particularly in the later decades of the century, theater critics neglected to mention pity in their assessments of tragedy and focused exclusively on terror. There were ethical implications to such judgments, because critics believed that viewing a terror-inspiring tragedy was morally improving. As a term used to praise exemplary works of drama, “terror” had a dignified, elevating feel to it, and it was a compliment to call a playwright “terrible.” Among the playwrights to benefit from the reputation of having instilled terror were the Greek tragedians Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus, the seventeenth-century dramatist Jean Racine, and the eighteenth-century playwright Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon.Less
The positive emotional connotations of the word “terror” were enhanced by eighteenth-century theater criticism, which used the standard of terror when judging tragedies. Drawing (often loosely) on Aristotle, writers praised tragedies for instilling terror and pity in spectators and discounted tragedies that failed to stimulate these feelings. Often, however, and particularly in the later decades of the century, theater critics neglected to mention pity in their assessments of tragedy and focused exclusively on terror. There were ethical implications to such judgments, because critics believed that viewing a terror-inspiring tragedy was morally improving. As a term used to praise exemplary works of drama, “terror” had a dignified, elevating feel to it, and it was a compliment to call a playwright “terrible.” Among the playwrights to benefit from the reputation of having instilled terror were the Greek tragedians Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus, the seventeenth-century dramatist Jean Racine, and the eighteenth-century playwright Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon.
Michael Moriarty
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- December 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198840688
- eISBN:
- 9780191882654
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198840688.003.0006
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
The chapter contains an exposition of Descartes’s ethics, the keystone of which is the concept of générosité. This incorporates both a cognitive state (the knowledge that nothing belongs to us but ...
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The chapter contains an exposition of Descartes’s ethics, the keystone of which is the concept of générosité. This incorporates both a cognitive state (the knowledge that nothing belongs to us but the use of our free will, and that nothing but the good or bad use of our free will is worthy of praise or blame) and a disposition of will, a determination always to act in accordance with our judgement of what is best. The concept is discussed in relation both to Aristotle’s conception of magnanimity and to the Stoic ethics of Epictetus, but also in relation to the use of the term in literary texts of the time, the plays of Pierre Corneille, and the stories of Jean-Pierre Camus.Less
The chapter contains an exposition of Descartes’s ethics, the keystone of which is the concept of générosité. This incorporates both a cognitive state (the knowledge that nothing belongs to us but the use of our free will, and that nothing but the good or bad use of our free will is worthy of praise or blame) and a disposition of will, a determination always to act in accordance with our judgement of what is best. The concept is discussed in relation both to Aristotle’s conception of magnanimity and to the Stoic ethics of Epictetus, but also in relation to the use of the term in literary texts of the time, the plays of Pierre Corneille, and the stories of Jean-Pierre Camus.
Juliette Cherbuliez
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- January 2021
- ISBN:
- 9780823287826
- eISBN:
- 9780823290345
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823287826.003.0006
- Subject:
- Literature, Criticism/Theory
Corneille’s 1660 prequel to 1634’s Médée, La Conquête de la Toison d’Or is usually dismissed as political propaganda. Instead, this chapter considers the play’s technological innovations as part of ...
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Corneille’s 1660 prequel to 1634’s Médée, La Conquête de la Toison d’Or is usually dismissed as political propaganda. Instead, this chapter considers the play’s technological innovations as part of its aesthetic and political work. An on-stage Medean presence pits two forms of temporality against each other, each performed by a different stage technology. The chapter explores technological innovations in set design and special effects, which offer contrasting experiences of time: rapid transformation versus narrative suspense. The chapter shows how the play changes the rules of dramatic narrative by challenging audience expectations of what will happen. This play offers, contra such conceptual historians as Reinhart Koselleck, an early example of the collision between pre-modern forms of history and more progressivist senses of temporality. This collision is shown to invoke the metaphor of suspension only to replace it with that of suspense, thus effecting a replacement that positions the threat of violence close at hand.Less
Corneille’s 1660 prequel to 1634’s Médée, La Conquête de la Toison d’Or is usually dismissed as political propaganda. Instead, this chapter considers the play’s technological innovations as part of its aesthetic and political work. An on-stage Medean presence pits two forms of temporality against each other, each performed by a different stage technology. The chapter explores technological innovations in set design and special effects, which offer contrasting experiences of time: rapid transformation versus narrative suspense. The chapter shows how the play changes the rules of dramatic narrative by challenging audience expectations of what will happen. This play offers, contra such conceptual historians as Reinhart Koselleck, an early example of the collision between pre-modern forms of history and more progressivist senses of temporality. This collision is shown to invoke the metaphor of suspension only to replace it with that of suspense, thus effecting a replacement that positions the threat of violence close at hand.
Hugh Gaston Hall
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198151579
- eISBN:
- 9780191672743
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198151579.003.0009
- Subject:
- Literature, European Literature, 17th-century and Restoration Literature
Prompted perhaps by Pierre Corneille's success with Le Cid, Jean Desmarets abandoned comedy for tragicomedy. Desmarets was elected on June 16 with Chapelain and the Abbé de Bourzeis, by the ...
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Prompted perhaps by Pierre Corneille's success with Le Cid, Jean Desmarets abandoned comedy for tragicomedy. Desmarets was elected on June 16 with Chapelain and the Abbé de Bourzeis, by the Académie-Française to the committee of three entrusted with general appreciation of Le Cid. Not surprisingly, in view of the success of Le Cid, Desmarets turned to tragicomedy and to an episode in the career of another virtuous conqueror of Spain, Scipio Africanus. Scipion, the first of Desmarets's two historical tragicomedies dedicated to Cardinal Richelieu, shares with Ariane and Le Cid a conquering hero of noble origins and royal aspirations. Scipion also shares with Le Cid the specific themes of self-mastery and of marriage for reasons of State. Desmarets's second tragicomedy, Roxane, was first performed on an unknown date in 1639.Less
Prompted perhaps by Pierre Corneille's success with Le Cid, Jean Desmarets abandoned comedy for tragicomedy. Desmarets was elected on June 16 with Chapelain and the Abbé de Bourzeis, by the Académie-Française to the committee of three entrusted with general appreciation of Le Cid. Not surprisingly, in view of the success of Le Cid, Desmarets turned to tragicomedy and to an episode in the career of another virtuous conqueror of Spain, Scipio Africanus. Scipion, the first of Desmarets's two historical tragicomedies dedicated to Cardinal Richelieu, shares with Ariane and Le Cid a conquering hero of noble origins and royal aspirations. Scipion also shares with Le Cid the specific themes of self-mastery and of marriage for reasons of State. Desmarets's second tragicomedy, Roxane, was first performed on an unknown date in 1639.
Andrea Frisch
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780748694396
- eISBN:
- 9781474412322
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748694396.003.0005
- Subject:
- Literature, Criticism/Theory
Examines the consolidation in French tragedy of the early seventeenth century of what Thomas Pavel has described as an “art of distancing” (“art de l'éloignement”) characteristic of French ...
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Examines the consolidation in French tragedy of the early seventeenth century of what Thomas Pavel has described as an “art of distancing” (“art de l'éloignement”) characteristic of French neo-classicism. The conciliatory posture encouraged by the exhortation to extinguish memories of the wars provoked a reorientation of French emotions about the national past, away from a Renaissance Humanist tendency to exploit pathos in the service of political action, and towards a neoclassical aesthetics and an absolutist politics for which emotion frequently functioned as an alternative to political action. By seeking to unify the French around a set of shared emotions, the imperative to forget the violently divisive differences of the period of the Wars of Religion paved the way for the thoroughgoing forgetting of difference that grounded the ideology of absolutism.Less
Examines the consolidation in French tragedy of the early seventeenth century of what Thomas Pavel has described as an “art of distancing” (“art de l'éloignement”) characteristic of French neo-classicism. The conciliatory posture encouraged by the exhortation to extinguish memories of the wars provoked a reorientation of French emotions about the national past, away from a Renaissance Humanist tendency to exploit pathos in the service of political action, and towards a neoclassical aesthetics and an absolutist politics for which emotion frequently functioned as an alternative to political action. By seeking to unify the French around a set of shared emotions, the imperative to forget the violently divisive differences of the period of the Wars of Religion paved the way for the thoroughgoing forgetting of difference that grounded the ideology of absolutism.
Jotham Parsons
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801451591
- eISBN:
- 9780801454981
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801451591.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, European Early Modern History
This chapter argues that French literature down to the 1630s frequently thematized the social danger of money, particularly with regards to social mobility. Writers from the age of Henri II through ...
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This chapter argues that French literature down to the 1630s frequently thematized the social danger of money, particularly with regards to social mobility. Writers from the age of Henri II through the first years of the seventeenth century stressed the role of money and precious metals as both expressions and synecdoches of royal or even divine majesty. But in the half century that followed the death of Henri IV, monetary themes became the province of comic and libertine writers such as Pierre Corneille, Tristan l'Hermite, and Charles Sorel, who flourished in the reign of Louis XIII (1610–1643), and their successors, such as Molière and Antoine Furetière, under Louis XIV.Less
This chapter argues that French literature down to the 1630s frequently thematized the social danger of money, particularly with regards to social mobility. Writers from the age of Henri II through the first years of the seventeenth century stressed the role of money and precious metals as both expressions and synecdoches of royal or even divine majesty. But in the half century that followed the death of Henri IV, monetary themes became the province of comic and libertine writers such as Pierre Corneille, Tristan l'Hermite, and Charles Sorel, who flourished in the reign of Louis XIII (1610–1643), and their successors, such as Molière and Antoine Furetière, under Louis XIV.
Emma Gilby
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- April 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198831891
- eISBN:
- 9780191869723
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198831891.003.0006
- Subject:
- Literature, European Literature, 16th-century and Renaissance Literature
When Marin Mersenne reflects upon the 1637 Discours de la méthode, he is anxious about what Descartes teaches us on the subject of flexibility and changing our minds. His worry is that Descartes ...
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When Marin Mersenne reflects upon the 1637 Discours de la méthode, he is anxious about what Descartes teaches us on the subject of flexibility and changing our minds. His worry is that Descartes might be arrogantly suggesting that the human will can tend to the good without the assistance of divine grace. Descartes’s response revolves around the example of Medea, a touchstone for poetic theory in general and the subject of Corneille’s 1635 reworking of Seneca. Subsequent critical comparisons of Corneille and Descartes are re-evaluated in this context, and against the background of the explosion of poetic debate in the quarrel surrounding Corneille’s 1637 Le Cid. This quarrel places the major players in earlier debates about tragicomedy on a very public stage.Less
When Marin Mersenne reflects upon the 1637 Discours de la méthode, he is anxious about what Descartes teaches us on the subject of flexibility and changing our minds. His worry is that Descartes might be arrogantly suggesting that the human will can tend to the good without the assistance of divine grace. Descartes’s response revolves around the example of Medea, a touchstone for poetic theory in general and the subject of Corneille’s 1635 reworking of Seneca. Subsequent critical comparisons of Corneille and Descartes are re-evaluated in this context, and against the background of the explosion of poetic debate in the quarrel surrounding Corneille’s 1637 Le Cid. This quarrel places the major players in earlier debates about tragicomedy on a very public stage.
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780226886015
- eISBN:
- 9780226886039
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226886039.003.0006
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
This chapter discusses concepts of the drama of time through the works of Aristotle, Pierre Corneille, Shakespeare, Lessing, and Proust.
This chapter discusses concepts of the drama of time through the works of Aristotle, Pierre Corneille, Shakespeare, Lessing, and Proust.
Emma Gilby
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- April 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198831891
- eISBN:
- 9780191869723
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198831891.001.0001
- Subject:
- Literature, European Literature, 16th-century and Renaissance Literature
Descartes’s Fictions traces common movements in early modern philosophy and literary method. This volume reassesses the significance of Descartes’s writing by bringing his philosophical output into ...
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Descartes’s Fictions traces common movements in early modern philosophy and literary method. This volume reassesses the significance of Descartes’s writing by bringing his philosophical output into contact with the literary treatises, exempla, and debates of his age. Arguing that humanist theorizing about the art of poetry represents a vital intellectual context for Descartes’s work, the volume offers readings of the controversies to which this poetic theory gives rise, with particular reference to the genre of tragicomedy, the question of verisimilitude, and the figures of Guez de Balzac and Pierre Corneille. Drawing on what Descartes says about, and to, his many contemporaries and correspondents embedded in the early modern republic of letters, this volume shows that poetics provides a repository of themes and images to which he returns repeatedly: fortune, method, error, providence, passion, and imagination, amongst others. Like the poets and theorists of the early modern period, Descartes is also drawn to the forms of attention that people may bring to his work. This interest finds expression in the mature Cartesian metaphysics of the Meditations, as well as, later, in the moral philosophy of his correspondence with Elisabeth of Bohemia or the Passions of the Soul. Some of the tropes of modern secondary criticism—a comparison of Descartes and Corneille, or the portrayal of Descartes as a ‘tragic’ figure—are also re-evaluated. This volume thus bridges the gap between Cartesian criticism and late-humanist literary culture in France.Less
Descartes’s Fictions traces common movements in early modern philosophy and literary method. This volume reassesses the significance of Descartes’s writing by bringing his philosophical output into contact with the literary treatises, exempla, and debates of his age. Arguing that humanist theorizing about the art of poetry represents a vital intellectual context for Descartes’s work, the volume offers readings of the controversies to which this poetic theory gives rise, with particular reference to the genre of tragicomedy, the question of verisimilitude, and the figures of Guez de Balzac and Pierre Corneille. Drawing on what Descartes says about, and to, his many contemporaries and correspondents embedded in the early modern republic of letters, this volume shows that poetics provides a repository of themes and images to which he returns repeatedly: fortune, method, error, providence, passion, and imagination, amongst others. Like the poets and theorists of the early modern period, Descartes is also drawn to the forms of attention that people may bring to his work. This interest finds expression in the mature Cartesian metaphysics of the Meditations, as well as, later, in the moral philosophy of his correspondence with Elisabeth of Bohemia or the Passions of the Soul. Some of the tropes of modern secondary criticism—a comparison of Descartes and Corneille, or the portrayal of Descartes as a ‘tragic’ figure—are also re-evaluated. This volume thus bridges the gap between Cartesian criticism and late-humanist literary culture in France.