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This chapter investigates cross-temporal relationships of voice between anonymous scribes and compilers and the named authors whose songs and identities they recorded. The chapter first considers the discrete libelli of songs by Thibaut de Champagne and Adam de la Halle preserved at either end of the chansonnier trouv. T (P-BNF fr. 12615). Through compilatio over time, scribes assembled the individual authorial voices of these two trouvères and created a genealogical line from the early-century Champagne noble to the late-century Artesian cleric. The second part of this chapter looks at the dismantling effects of continued compilatio by examining three late additions to the chansonnier trouv. M (P-BNF fr. 844), specifically three strophic chansons by the trouvères Robert de Castel, Perrin d’Angicourt, and Guiot de Dijon, whose music has been radically recomposed by later scribes “under the influence” of the descort, as well as refrain songs. The unusual forms, melodic behavior, and mensural notation betray an estrangement from the conventions of the repertory and can be read as conscious distortions or parodies—unauthorized versions engaged in an open-ended musical debate about the expressive confines of the aristocratic courtly chanson.

This chapter gives the historical background for the rest of the book. It begins with the story of Robert Brown, the botanist who discovered the incessant motion of small particles immersed in a fluid while investigating the pollination of plants. A few of the sporadic studies of this phenomenon in the ensuing years are briefly discussed, but the story really begins again with the researches of Albert Einstein and Marian von Smoluchowski in 1905–6; who explained the motion in terms of fluctuations in the collisions between the suspended particles and the particles of the medium. The quantitative predictions of these theories followed from the experiments of Jean Perrin and his students.

This chapter treats rotational diffusion in the Smoluchowski limit, but not limited to uniaxial diffusion. The rotational Langevin equation for a spherical particle with a homogeneous external field present is derived and its solution obtained for the cases of a field constant in time and one oscillating in time. The solutions are discussed and their relevance to dielectric phenomena described. The depolarisation of fluorescence from rotating molecules is treated and the relevance of Brownian motion to the phenomenon is shown. The extension of the theory to nonspherical molecule, with anisotropic friction, is discussed.

Peter Achinstein has offered one of the most systematic expositions and reconstructions of Perrin's argument for the reality of atoms, aiming (a) to show how his own theory of evidence best accounts for the significance of Perrin's results; and (b) how Perrin has offered a local and experimental argument for scientific realism. After some detailed presentation of Perrin's own argument, this chapter offers my own reconstruction of it and show why it is superior to Achinstein's. Finally, the chapter draws some lessons for scientific realism.

The story of how Perrin's experimental work established the reality of atoms and molecules has been a staple in (realist) philosophy of science writings (Wesley Salmon, Clark Glymour, Penelope Maddy, and so on). With this understanding, the only question is how, and by how much, Perrin's results confirmed the hypothesis that molecules are real. Peter Achinstein produced the most detailed reconstruction, in which the prior probability of that hypothesis was at least ½, and after Perrin's work, the posterior probability was greater than ½. This chapter argues that how Perrin's story is told distorts both what the work was and the significance of his achievement. Perrin completed a century-long process of empirical grounding for the classical kinetic theory. The concept of empirical grounding is explored and morals are drawn for how theories can be or fail to be empirically grounded, while the obsessive focus on justification, confirmation, and “weight of evidence” was inappropriate and unilluminating.

This chapter discusses the case of Perrin Le Roux, a stagehand who was accidentally killed by Fremin Severin during a rehearsal of the play Miracle of Théophile in June 1384. This is similar to the case of Guillaume Langlois in terms of special effects gone awry and the king's absolution. This chapter suggests that Severin's case not only provided insights into the nature of both work performance and legal work product, it also justifies the assertion that there is no such thing as accidental impersonation. It also argues that this case concept of the rehearsal makes sense only in light of intentionality.

This chapter explores the history of French opera from its early origins to Jean-Baptiste Lully. It explains that before opera was introduced to France there was already a genre which included mixing dance and singing, and suggests that the ballet de cour should be considered as a forerunner and not as a rival of French opera. The chapter describes the early beginning of Lully as a composer and the role of Cardinal Mazarin in bringing Italian opera to Paris. It also considers the works of other composers, including Isaac de Benserade, Pierre Perrin, and Robert Cambert.

This chapter examines the history of French opera during the Second Empire. It suggests that some of the most significant figures in Second Empire opera were Léon Carvalho and his counterpart at the Opéra-Comique, Émile Perrin. The chapter highlights the emergence of French operetta and describes some of the works during this period, including those of Giuseppe Verdi, Victor Massé, and Charles Gounod.

This chapter describes the Confederates' arrival at the town of Gettysburg. There is no way of knowing which Confederates were the first to enter the town, for it was a large place and there was much activity that day. Col. Abner Perrin, commander of McGowan's brigade, Fender's division claimed the honor for the 1st and 14th South Carolina regiments, which had pursued fleeing First Corps troops after breaking their last line at the seminary.

Chapter 3 focuses on the concept of atoms, which dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Leucippus, who claimed that everything consisted of them. This view began to be accepted among scientists when John Dalton championed it in the 1800s, although he was wrong in his atomic structure of molecules. That was corrected not long after by Jöns Berzelius. From then on the reality of atoms, and whether those of chemistry were the same as those of physics was a matter of debate. The theory of statistical mechanics, developed in the second half of the nineteenth century, helped establish their reality for most physicists, while many chemists were won over later, in part by the periodic table developed by the Russian Dimitri Mendeleev. Nearly every scientist was finally convinced by the explanation of Brownian motion by Albert Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski, whose formulas were verified by Jean Perrin in 1909.

This chapter examines Anglo-Indian fiction featuring missionaries as they, along with working-class whites and non-commissioned soldiers in India, belied the image of the ‘bourgeois aristocracy’ that largely underpinned Anglo-Indian fiction as well as the popular representations of the Raj in the British imagination. Considered to be members of the lower-middle-class, the missionaries problematized the boundaries around whiteness through living in close proximity to native lines, through their daily interactions and intimacy with native lives. Christian missionaries in India functioned at the nexus of modernity, colonial politics, and whiteness and provoked discomfort amongst both, the imperial rulers and the local population alike. This chapter contextualises the missionary novel within missionary history before going on to analyse two novels which reshape an understanding of Anglo-Indian fiction, Margaret Wilson’s Daughters of India and Alice Perrin’s Idolatry. This chapter focusses on the thematics of missionaries and conversion and their place within the genre of Anglo-Indian fiction which commonly focuses on romance, adventure, and heroism. It considers the ways the missionary novel fits within this schema when the only passion that could be represented was for Christ and the only adventure a wrestling for the soul.

Einstein’s theory of Brownian motion provides us with direct visual evidence for the existence of the point-like structure of matter. It suggests that we can see with our own eyes the molecular thermal motion. In this paper Einstein gave the first statistical derivation of the diffusion equation. Its solution can be interpreted as representing random walks. The mean-square displacement of a Brownian particle is related to the diffusion coefficient, showing diffusion as a fluctuation phenomenon. The Einstein–Smoluchowski relation between diffusion and viscosity is the first fluctuation–dissipation relation ever noted. This prediction, verified through the experimental work of Jean Perrin, provided another means to measure the molecular size and Avogadro’s number. It finally convinced the skeptics of the reality of molecules.

This chapter’s discussion of premodern Virgilian translations, those that predate 1850, provides an important historical background to the different directions of Virgilian translations in Europe and beyond. While Kallendorf avoids offering aesthetic judgements on any of these translations, the statistics provided in this chapter shed light on the role that Virgilian translations played in their respective cultures. The most noteworthy part of this study, however, is that Kallendorf brings back from obscurity such translations as those of Perrin and Le Plat, Delille and Cynyngham, Marot and Gresset, emphasizing that, regardless of their aesthetic quality, translations can never be ranked only in terms of failure or success, because each one has elements of both and each one contributes to future attempts.

A later version of the stage work that Joplin had performed in 1899 and 1900 finally reached print in the spring of 1902. At the insistence of his daughter Eleanor, John Stark published it under the title The Ragtime Dance. The work depicts an African American ball with a variety of ragtime dance steps and styles. The concept had several precedents, dating back at least to 1894, but the work closest to Joplin’s is Sidney Perrin’s Jennie Cooler Dance (1898), though Joplin’s music and lyric are clearly superior. Among Joplin’s six other publications that year was The Strenuous Life, a work notable for its tribute (implied by the title) to President Theodore Roosevelt for his courtesy to Booker T. Washington in inviting him for dinner in the White House in October 1901.

Lore has it that research on Brownian motion, spearheaded on the theoretical side by Albert Einstein, but then strongly supported by Jean Perrin’s experimental efforts, finally ended the controversy over whether molecules exist. That view has nevertheless been challenged on more than one occasion, most recently by Bas van Fraassen. A discussion of the history of the standard view and challenges to it leads to two issues that the remainder of the monograph addresses: one concerning just what Perrin established about Brownian motion itself, and the other concerning how the standing of molecular theory had changed from 1900, first to Einstein’s initial paper of 1905 and then between that year and Perrin’s Les atomes of 1913. At the center of both of these issues is evidence resulting from theory-mediated measurements of aspects of Brownian motion—hence the subtitle of the monograph.

The mystery of Brownian motion had been announced with its discovery by Robert Brown in 1828: the persistence of the motion of solid particles in liquids for indefinite periods of time instead of sinking as sediment to the bottom. Once molecular-kinetic theory emerged more fully a few years later, it was the obvious candidate for explaining the phenomenon. Nevertheless, those developing kinetic theory in the second half of the century, Maxwell and Boltzmann, appear to have ignored it. The chapter summarizes research on Brownian motion during the nineteenth century, indicating why leading physicists ignored it, and what developments in the first five years of the twentieth century led to its suddenly becoming so important to kinetic theory. This background supplements that of Chapter 2, completing the historical context for the developments covered in subsequent chapters.

Between 1908 and 1911 Perrin published values for Avogadro’s number—the number of molecules per mole of any substance—on the basis of theory-mediated measurements of the mean kinetic energies of granules in Brownian motion. The umbilical cord connecting these energies to Avogadro’s number was the assumption that they are the same as the mean kinetic energies of the molecules in the surrounding liquid. This, as van Fraassen has argued, seems to presuppose that molecules exist, thereby undercutting Perrin’s claim to be proving their existence. This chapter reviews Perrin’s four theory-mediated measurements, showing, on the one hand, that none of them in fact depended on molecular theory yet, on the other, that, by virtue of being exemplars of theory-mediated measurement at its best, they managed to establish several extraordinary landmark conclusions about Brownian motion in its own right.