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Revolutions and Civil War

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

The focus of this chapter is on the complex developments in the North Caucasus during the time of Revolution and Civil War (1917-1921). If the period of the February and October revolutions was ... More

The focus of this chapter is on the complex developments in the North Caucasus during the time of Revolution and Civil War (1917-1921). If the period of the February and October revolutions was characterized by attempts of the North Caucasian political and religious elite to form a single state entity, the outbreak of civil war brought societal and ethnic cleavages to the fore, undermining common state-building efforts. Caucasians fought on all sides of the front, but most of the North Caucasian Muslims allied themselves with the forces of the Bolsheviks, with whom they shared a common cause: to prevent the re-establishment of the old regime. While the “White” troops under former tsarist General Anton Denikin fought for a Russia “one and united,” the Bolsheviks promised the non-Russian peoples land and freedom. Shortly after the triumph of the Bolsheviks, cracks began to appear in these alliances. By mid-1920, the mountainous parts of Chechnia and Dagestan had been set aflame in a large-scale anti-Bolshevik uprising led Imam Gotsinskii. Only in late 1921 did the Bolsheviks, with assistance from regular units of the Red Army, manage to crush this rebellion and establish military superiority.Less

Russia: Russia’s response to terrorism in the twenty-first century

Ekaterina Stepanova

in Non-Western responses to terrorism

The chapter explores how, despite earlier counterterrorism failures and two bitter wars in Chechnya, terrorism in Russia has declined in the 2010s. The Islamist-separatist terrorism problem that used ... More

The chapter explores how, despite earlier counterterrorism failures and two bitter wars in Chechnya, terrorism in Russia has declined in the 2010s. The Islamist-separatist terrorism problem that used to dominate national politics was degraded to a relatively peripheral issue that hovers at a level of persistent, but low-scale and increasingly fragmented violence, primarily in the North Caucasus. However imperfect, interim and incomplete, a ‘solution’ that has worked out in the Russian case was not ‘war’. This ‘solution other than war’ was made possible by certain developments outside Moscow’s direct control, such as the internal split within the insurgency catalyzed by its increasing jihadization, and resulted from a combination of the policy of Chechenization, shifts in federal security strategy towards smarter suppression and prevention, and massive reconstruction and development assistance. While this solution is no substitute for addressing the underlying structural causes of violent extremism and has involved enormous security, financial, human rights and governance costs for the nation, these costs are much lower than the cost of war. This is seen as one of the key broader lessons to be gleaned from Russia’s response to terrorism. It also explains why Russia has a genuine interest in ensuring that this degree of stabilization and decline in terrorism of North Caucasian origin is not distorted or reversed by new destabilizing factors, including transnational influences and connections.Less

The Frontiers of the North Caucasus

Michael Khodarkovsky

in Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus

This chapter describes Russia's conquest and colonization of North Caucasus. Russia's annexation of the North Caucasus began in earnest in the 1760s with the construction of the Mozdok Fortification ... More

This chapter describes Russia's conquest and colonization of North Caucasus. Russia's annexation of the North Caucasus began in earnest in the 1760s with the construction of the Mozdok Fortification Line. By the mid-nineteenth century Russia had succeeded in turning the Caucasus from a contested frontier zone into a borderland of the Russian Empire. The North Caucasus was substantially altered by Russian policies. The geography of the region underwent a dramatic transformation as rivers were diverted, primeval forests systematically cut down, and pastureland seized to build forts, settlements, industries, and spas. The traditional economies had become more dependent on Russian products and cash. Traditional law had increasingly come under the influence of the Russian one, and various peoples began to redefine their identity through modern notions of ethnicity. Finally, Russian policies created a colonial situation that served as a catalyst in intensifying the social antagonisms between the indigenous elite and commoners on the one hand, and among different groups of the indigenous elite on the other. The result was the emergence of two sharply polarized factions within native societies: one pro-Russian, the other pro-Islamic and consequently anti-Russian.Less

Conquest and Resistance

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter provides an overview of the most important historical trajectories, covering the period from Russia’s advance towards the Caucasus under Catherine II in the last third of the 18th ... More

This chapter provides an overview of the most important historical trajectories, covering the period from Russia’s advance towards the Caucasus under Catherine II in the last third of the 18th century to military conquest in the mid-19th century with the surrender of Imam Shamil. The main goal is to give readers an understanding of the character of Russian imperial strategies of conquest, as well as providing an insight into the nature and the changing forms of resistance against Russia’s advance. This chapter also includes a discussion of societal, cultural and political changes taking place in the North Caucasus, and an overview of the main historiographical debates concerning the reasons for Russian military victory.Less

The North Caucasus Within the Russian Empire

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter traces the trajectories in the North Caucasus from the end of the Caucasus wars of conquest in the mid-19th century until the outbreak of revolution in 1917. A detailed treatment of this ... More

This chapter traces the trajectories in the North Caucasus from the end of the Caucasus wars of conquest in the mid-19th century until the outbreak of revolution in 1917. A detailed treatment of this epoch is necessary due to the fact that historical investigation of the post-war period, as opposed to the Caucasus wars themselves, has been rudimentary to date. While Russian historical research has begun to study this period systematically based on new sources, albeit without reaching any kind of consensus in assessing Russian policy, the Western literature has only dealt with this epoch in cursory overviews. This chapter remedies some of these deficiencies by looking more closely at the nature of Russian rule in the Caucasus after the end of formal military conquest. It also takes into account the societal responses and changes that took place during this period.Less

Russia and the Peoples of the North Caucasus

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter introduces the North Caucasus region and its peoples. It provides an overview of the state of research and historiographical controversies, presents the lead questions and theoretical ... More

This chapter introduces the North Caucasus region and its peoples. It provides an overview of the state of research and historiographical controversies, presents the lead questions and theoretical and methodological approaches, and also explains the concept and content of the book.Less

The North Caucasus During Collectivisation

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter presents the first detailed account of the tragic impact of the collectivization and “de-kulakization” campaign in the North Caucasus based on Soviet archival sources. In 1929-30, under ... More

This chapter presents the first detailed account of the tragic impact of the collectivization and “de-kulakization” campaign in the North Caucasus based on Soviet archival sources. In 1929-30, under the slogan of “socialist transformation of the country,” the Soviet state reached out to the countryside, trying forcibly to change traditional economic ways of life and break up the existing social structures within the villages. In the eyes of the peasants, however, the state’s collectivization and “de-kulakization” campaign represented nothing less than a brutal assault, plunging the whole country into chaos and provoking large-scale rebellions. Resistance was especially fierce in the Muslim-dominated parts of the North Caucasus, where Soviet structures were weak and the social cohesion of mountain communities strong. Ultimately, the Red Army and the armed forces of the secret police crushed these rebellions ruthlessly. However, especially in Chechnia, Ingushetia, Karachai, and the mountainous parts of Dagestan, they were at least sufficiently violent for the Soviet leadership to decide to suspend their collectivization attempt altogether. In fact, it was not until mid-1930s, much later than in most other areas of the Soviet Union, that collectivization was formally completed.Less

Illusion of Freedom: Chechnia in the Early 1920s and the Case of Ali Mitaev

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter explains developments during the early 1920s, when the Bolsheviks, for the sake of consolidating their still shaky hold on power, were eager to win over the rural populations and ... More

This chapter explains developments during the early 1920s, when the Bolsheviks, for the sake of consolidating their still shaky hold on power, were eager to win over the rural populations and strengthen the alliances they had forged during the Civil War. One way to achieve this was to accommodate aspirations for freedom through the creation of autonomous administrative units in the form of ethnically defined territories, and by promoting members of the so called “titular nations” to positions of power. In the early 1920s, the Bolsheviks even co-opted religious figures into administrative local structures in order to expand their power basis and gain the trust of the native populations. This chapter provides an insight into developments in the Soviet North Caucasus through the life story of the famous Chechen Sheikh Ali Mitaev, whom the Bolsheviks included into the regional Chechen government in 1923, only to arrest and kill him two years later. At the same time, the Bolsheviks also conducted several campaigns to disarm the male population. The case of Mitaev illustrates the ambiguities of Soviet nationalities policies, especially regarding their attitude towards Muslims, as well as the complex struggle for power and influence in the non-Russian populated North Caucasus region.Less

Musa Kundukhov and the Tragedy of Mass Emigration

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

This chapter deals with the tragedy of the mass expulsion of the North Caucasian indigenous population in the aftermath of Russian conquest in the mid-1860s. While the causes of the forced emigration ... More

This chapter deals with the tragedy of the mass expulsion of the North Caucasian indigenous population in the aftermath of Russian conquest in the mid-1860s. While the causes of the forced emigration of vast numbers of Cherkessians to the Ottoman Empire have been investigated, little research has been conducted regarding the simultaneous emigration of other Muslim communities, including thousands of Chechens. In the migrations of Muslim Ossetians, Karabulaks and Chechens in 1865, it was an ethnic Ossetian Muslim and general of the Russian Imperial Army, Musa Kundukhov, who played a crucial role. When he organized the mass emigration of Chechens and other Muslim peoples to the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1860s, he also departed together with his family, and later became a highly decorated general in the sultan’s forces. By studying the biography of this individual, this chapter sheds light on the situation in the north-eastern part of the Caucasus as well as the features of Russia’s rule in the early 1860s, and thus illuminates a still little-understood aspect of the history of Russia’s conquest of the Caucasus.Less

Return to the North Caucasus

Michael Khodarkovsky

in Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus

This chapter details events following Semën Atarshchikov's return to North Caucasus in 1832. Atarshchikov arrived late in the summer and was assigned as a translator to the headquarters of the Mozdok ... More

This chapter details events following Semën Atarshchikov's return to North Caucasus in 1832. Atarshchikov arrived late in the summer and was assigned as a translator to the headquarters of the Mozdok Cossack Regiment commanded by Major Grigorii Khristoforovich von Zass. The Mozdok regiment was part of a large expeditionary force led by Lieutenant General Aleksei Veliaminov into the mountainous auls, the heartland of the resistance led by Muslim preacher Ghazi Muhammad. Like many translators of the time, Atarshchikov's real role was that of expert counsel to his commander and liaison with the indigenous peoples. For the next two years he would continue to acquit himself well in these capacities, until a desperate need for a reliable and knowledgeable Russian official to establish Russian authority in the Karachay highlands prompted General Zass to recommend Atarshchikov for this position.Less

State and Society

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

The focus of this chapter is on the difficult state-society relations in the North Caucasus developing during the 1920s. Despite the Bolsheviks’ disarmament campaigns and the purges of Muslim ... More

The focus of this chapter is on the difficult state-society relations in the North Caucasus developing during the 1920s. Despite the Bolsheviks’ disarmament campaigns and the purges of Muslim leaders, the rural and non-Russian-populated areas remained largely detached from the modernizing processes that characterized developments in the few Russian- and Slavic-populated cities such as Groznyi and Vladikavkaz. During most of the 1920s, Soviet state institutions and party organizations were still practically non-existent in the countryside. One way in which the Bolsheviks sought to establish their rule over the rural areas was through their program of korenizatsiia (“indigenization”), the promotion of national languages and cultures and the creation of a Soviet-trained indigenous elite. Another was to draw young North Caucasians into the industries of the cities and merge individual ethnic territories into larger units. Through the fate of a contemporary, Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, some aspect of life in Chechnia during the 1920s are exemplified.Less

Introduction

Michael Khodarkovsky

in Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, which is to reconstruct the life of Semën Atarshchikov, a Russian officer of Chechen ancestry. It is a fascinating story of a man who in many ... More

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, which is to reconstruct the life of Semën Atarshchikov, a Russian officer of Chechen ancestry. It is a fascinating story of a man who in many ways was a typical product of the Russian imperial frontier. Atarshchikov' life serves as a vehicle for a larger story—a history of the North Caucasus during the three centuries of Russian conquest (1560s–1860s). Throughout his career Atarshchikov served in different parts of the North Caucasus, and his path traces a narrative that embraces the entire region. At the same time, as a product of both Russian and local cultures, Atarshchikov's life enables us to view the history of the region from both the perspective of the indigenous societies and the more familiar view of the imperial center.Less

Inside Ermolov’s “Iron Fist”

Michael Khodarkovsky

in Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus

This chapter focuses on the commander of the Russian troops in the Caucasus, General A. P. Ermolov. Following Russia's military victory over Napoleon and the empire's enhanced role in European ... More

This chapter focuses on the commander of the Russian troops in the Caucasus, General A. P. Ermolov. Following Russia's military victory over Napoleon and the empire's enhanced role in European politics, St. Petersburg decided that the time had come to pacify the North Caucasus. Several tactical and strategic reasons dominated the thinking of the Russian government: preventing brigandage along the frontier, seizing the lands that could be used for farming and commerce, bringing the natives into submission, and securing Russia's expanding control of Transcaucasia: the Georgian, Armenian, and Azeri lands. The task of pacifying the North Caucasus fell to General Ermolov, whose long tenure in the region (1816–27) would leave a controversial legacy. To some he was a legendary general whose bravery and determination had finally brought the natives of the North Caucasus to their knees. To others he was a ruthless and shortsighted conqueror whose policies unnecessarily turned the natives into Russia's permanent antagonists.Less

At the Fringes of the Stalinist Mobilising Society: The Path to Deportation

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

In order to understand Moscow’s decision to deport the Chechens and other North Caucasians in 1943-4, it is essential to analyze the situation as it presented itself to the Soviet leadership during ... More

In order to understand Moscow’s decision to deport the Chechens and other North Caucasians in 1943-4, it is essential to analyze the situation as it presented itself to the Soviet leadership during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The topics covered in this chapter include an in-depth analysis of the functioning of Chechen society and politics, including the role of traditional clan and family structures; the difficulties of the various state mobilization campaigns, namely the effort to mobilize soldiers for the Red Army; the situation in the Chechen-Ingush republic during World War II and the phenomenon of desertions and anti-Soviet rebellions.Less

Conclusion

Michael Khodarkovsky

in Bitter Choices: Loyalty and Betrayal in the Russian Conquest of the North Caucasus

This concluding chapter considers the question of why after three centuries of conquest and rule Russia still failed to integrate the North Caucasus into the fabric of its empire-state. Does the ... More

This concluding chapter considers the question of why after three centuries of conquest and rule Russia still failed to integrate the North Caucasus into the fabric of its empire-state. Does the answer lie in the peculiarities of local geography and the social and military organization of the highlanders, in the political theology of Islam, or in the empire's structural inability to assimilate others? The chapter revisits the Russian imperial experience in broader historical context in order to address these questions. It argues that Russian authorities' decision to merely acculturate indigenous elites, in contrast to previous policies of assimilating and turning non-Christians into Russians, resulted in elites that lacked a cohesive group identity. It continued to include individuals of different faiths, languages, and customs, who arrived from the different parts of the empire and returned to their own people as different men. If the members of this new elite had thought they could open communication in both directions between Russian authorities and the local peoples, they were deeply mistaken. Their superiors often disregarded their advice, ignoring their analyses of local situations. Gradually they came to realize that the state intended to use them to channel information in one direction only.Less

Precarious Rule and Contested Loyalties

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

The concluding chapter presents a brief summary, discussing main arguments and theses in a concise way, and highlights the main findings of this book.

Conformity and Rebellion: The Case of Khasan Israilov

Jeronim Perović

in From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule

The territory of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR (apart from a small sector at Mozdok) was never occupied by the Germans, and while many of its residents certainly had sympathies with the Germans, there was ... More

The territory of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR (apart from a small sector at Mozdok) was never occupied by the Germans, and while many of its residents certainly had sympathies with the Germans, there was never wholesale collaboration with the enemy. Nevertheless, the Soviet leadership later added “collaborationism” to the catalogue of accusations used as a pretext to expel the Chechens and other North Caucasians peoples from their homelands. This chapter discusses this tragic, and highly controversial, chapter of North Caucasian history by following the life story of Khasan Israilov, one of the most prominent Chechen rebels who led the anti-Soviet insurgency from 1941 until his death in 1944. The chapter draws to large parts on the unpublished (and to date unknown) diaries of Israilov, which he had ostensibly written during the period 1941–3. These memoirs are among the rare accounts by an anti-Soviet resistance fighter that have survived and show that the path to armed resistance was not foreordained. In order to understand the motivation for Israilov’s choice, the ambiguities of his biography must be taken into account.Less