Maurice Wiles
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199245918
- eISBN:
- 9780191600814
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199245916.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology
Arianism is a fourth‐century heresy, which affirmed Christ to be divine, but not in the same full sense in which God the Father is divine. Traditional Trinitarianism, with its classical expression in ...
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Arianism is a fourth‐century heresy, which affirmed Christ to be divine, but not in the same full sense in which God the Father is divine. Traditional Trinitarianism, with its classical expression in the Nicene Creed, emerged out of controversy with Arianism and defined Christ as being of one substance with the Father. The overall aim of the book is to trace when and where beliefs of an Arian nature have recurred in the subsequent history of Christianity. It begins with an account of the main findings of recent scholarship on fourth‐century Arianism, which involve substantial revision of the traditional picture of the faithful orthodox defending sacred truth against the evil heretics. It goes on to provide survey accounts of Gothic Christianity, of references to Arianism in the Middle Ages, and of the resurgence of Arian‐type beliefs in the continental Reformation. There is a major concentration on eighteenth‐century Britain, where many leading intellectual figures favoured a view of the Trinity close to that of early Arianism. In particular, there are detailed studies of the theological beliefs of Isaac Newton, William Whiston, and Samuel Clarke. The collapse of these views (and the similar views of many leading heterodox dissenters) into Unitarianism is traced out, and reasons for that development offered. The final chapter looks at the development of the historical study of Arianism in Britain from John Henry Newman to Rowan Williams, with special regard for the relation between the scholars’ faith and scholarly judgement. Finally a brief epilogue asks about the implication of this historical study for contemporary Trinitarian faith.Less
Arianism is a fourth‐century heresy, which affirmed Christ to be divine, but not in the same full sense in which God the Father is divine. Traditional Trinitarianism, with its classical expression in the Nicene Creed, emerged out of controversy with Arianism and defined Christ as being of one substance with the Father. The overall aim of the book is to trace when and where beliefs of an Arian nature have recurred in the subsequent history of Christianity. It begins with an account of the main findings of recent scholarship on fourth‐century Arianism, which involve substantial revision of the traditional picture of the faithful orthodox defending sacred truth against the evil heretics. It goes on to provide survey accounts of Gothic Christianity, of references to Arianism in the Middle Ages, and of the resurgence of Arian‐type beliefs in the continental Reformation. There is a major concentration on eighteenth‐century Britain, where many leading intellectual figures favoured a view of the Trinity close to that of early Arianism. In particular, there are detailed studies of the theological beliefs of Isaac Newton, William Whiston, and Samuel Clarke. The collapse of these views (and the similar views of many leading heterodox dissenters) into Unitarianism is traced out, and reasons for that development offered. The final chapter looks at the development of the historical study of Arianism in Britain from John Henry Newman to Rowan Williams, with special regard for the relation between the scholars’ faith and scholarly judgement. Finally a brief epilogue asks about the implication of this historical study for contemporary Trinitarian faith.
Louis A. Girifalco
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199228966
- eISBN:
- 9780191711183
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228966.003.0008
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
Modern science could not advance until the ideas of force and mass were understood. Newton provided this understanding by stressing the role of momentum and by creating his three laws of motion. But ...
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Modern science could not advance until the ideas of force and mass were understood. Newton provided this understanding by stressing the role of momentum and by creating his three laws of motion. But notions were not rigorously based and left much undefined until Mach gave a detailed operational method for defining mass and force. Newton's genius and insight was illustrated by the fact that he got everything right in spite of this. When force and mass were examined with rigorous logic, they were found to be in accord with Newton's intuition.Less
Modern science could not advance until the ideas of force and mass were understood. Newton provided this understanding by stressing the role of momentum and by creating his three laws of motion. But notions were not rigorously based and left much undefined until Mach gave a detailed operational method for defining mass and force. Newton's genius and insight was illustrated by the fact that he got everything right in spite of this. When force and mass were examined with rigorous logic, they were found to be in accord with Newton's intuition.
David M. Armstrong
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199590612
- eISBN:
- 9780191723391
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199590612.003.0013
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, Metaphysics/Epistemology
An account is given of the Forrest‐Armstrong theory of number (Peter Forrest). Natural numbers are argued to be relations holding between a certain property and a certain mereological whole (black ...
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An account is given of the Forrest‐Armstrong theory of number (Peter Forrest). Natural numbers are argued to be relations holding between a certain property and a certain mereological whole (black swan on the lake now, and the whole that these swans make). With the rational numbers and the real numbers the relation becomes one of proportion, they are the units that measure the proportion. It is pointed out, however, that this view is largely to be found in Isaac Newton, and is even anticipated in Aristotle. What it is for a mathematical entity such as a number to be ‘instantiated’ is considered.Less
An account is given of the Forrest‐Armstrong theory of number (Peter Forrest). Natural numbers are argued to be relations holding between a certain property and a certain mereological whole (black swan on the lake now, and the whole that these swans make). With the rational numbers and the real numbers the relation becomes one of proportion, they are the units that measure the proportion. It is pointed out, however, that this view is largely to be found in Isaac Newton, and is even anticipated in Aristotle. What it is for a mathematical entity such as a number to be ‘instantiated’ is considered.
Andrew Stewart Skinner
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198233343
- eISBN:
- 9780191678974
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198233343.003.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it appears that Adam Smith gave greater emphasis to jurisprudence and economics at the expense of the ethical material. While the lectures ...
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Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it appears that Adam Smith gave greater emphasis to jurisprudence and economics at the expense of the ethical material. While the lectures on theology have not been discovered as yet, it is at least possible that Smith's position would have shown agreement with that of Isaac Newton. Smith made use of a number of Newtonian analogies whose implications are not inconsistent with the view of God as the Divine Architect or Great Superintendent of the Universe. He made wide use of mechanistic (and other) analogies, seeing in the universe a ‘great machine’ wherein we may observe ‘means adjusted with the nicest artifice to the ends which they are intended to produce’. The remaining parts of Smith's lectures — ethics, jurisprudence, and economics — were seen by him as the parts, separate but interconnected, of an even wider system of social science, a point that emerges clearly from the advertisement to the sixth edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, published in the year of Smith's death.Less
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it appears that Adam Smith gave greater emphasis to jurisprudence and economics at the expense of the ethical material. While the lectures on theology have not been discovered as yet, it is at least possible that Smith's position would have shown agreement with that of Isaac Newton. Smith made use of a number of Newtonian analogies whose implications are not inconsistent with the view of God as the Divine Architect or Great Superintendent of the Universe. He made wide use of mechanistic (and other) analogies, seeing in the universe a ‘great machine’ wherein we may observe ‘means adjusted with the nicest artifice to the ends which they are intended to produce’. The remaining parts of Smith's lectures — ethics, jurisprudence, and economics — were seen by him as the parts, separate but interconnected, of an even wider system of social science, a point that emerges clearly from the advertisement to the sixth edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, published in the year of Smith's death.
Nicholas Hardy and Dmitri Levitin (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780197266601
- eISBN:
- 9780191896057
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197266601.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies
This volume examines the relationship between the history of scholarship and the history of Christianity in the early modern period. Leading British, American and continental scholars explore the ...
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This volume examines the relationship between the history of scholarship and the history of Christianity in the early modern period. Leading British, American and continental scholars explore the ways in which erudition contributed to—or clashed with—the formation of confessional identities in the wake of the Reformation, at individual, institutional, national and international levels. Covering Catholics and Protestants in equal measure, the essays assess biblical criticism; the study of the church fathers; the ecclesiastical censorship of scholarly works; oriental studies and the engagement with Near Eastern languages, texts and communities; and the relationship between developments in scholarship and other domains, including practical piety, natural philosophy, and the universities and seminaries where most intellectual activity was still conducted. One of the volume’s main strengths is its chronological coverage. It begins with an unprecedentedly detailed and comprehensive review of the scholarly literature in this field and proceeds with case studies ranging from the early Reformation to the eighteenth century. The volume also features the publication of a remarkable new manuscript detailing Isaac Newton’s early theological studies in 1670s Cambridge. It will be of interest not only to early modern intellectual and religious historians, but also to those with broader interests in religious change, the reception of oriental and classical sources and traditions, the history of science, and in the sociology of knowledge.Less
This volume examines the relationship between the history of scholarship and the history of Christianity in the early modern period. Leading British, American and continental scholars explore the ways in which erudition contributed to—or clashed with—the formation of confessional identities in the wake of the Reformation, at individual, institutional, national and international levels. Covering Catholics and Protestants in equal measure, the essays assess biblical criticism; the study of the church fathers; the ecclesiastical censorship of scholarly works; oriental studies and the engagement with Near Eastern languages, texts and communities; and the relationship between developments in scholarship and other domains, including practical piety, natural philosophy, and the universities and seminaries where most intellectual activity was still conducted. One of the volume’s main strengths is its chronological coverage. It begins with an unprecedentedly detailed and comprehensive review of the scholarly literature in this field and proceeds with case studies ranging from the early Reformation to the eighteenth century. The volume also features the publication of a remarkable new manuscript detailing Isaac Newton’s early theological studies in 1670s Cambridge. It will be of interest not only to early modern intellectual and religious historians, but also to those with broader interests in religious change, the reception of oriental and classical sources and traditions, the history of science, and in the sociology of knowledge.
Stephen Gaukroger
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199296446
- eISBN:
- 9780191711985
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296446.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy ...
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This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.Less
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.
Stephen Gaukroger
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199296446
- eISBN:
- 9780191711985
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296446.003.0012
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter looks at attempts to quantify natural phenomena and, in particular, forces. Early efforts along these lines — notably by Galileo and Descartes — tried to extrapolate from statics to ...
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This chapter looks at attempts to quantify natural phenomena and, in particular, forces. Early efforts along these lines — notably by Galileo and Descartes — tried to extrapolate from statics to dynamics, whereas later in the century kinematics, as pioneered by Galileo, was taken as the model by Huygens and Newton. Newton, building on Hooke's suggestion that planetary orbits were not a given and unquestionable feature of the cosmos, was able to show how such orbits were generated and clarify the dynamics needed to account for the processes involved. In this way, mechanics, traditionally excluded from natural philosophy in the Aristotelian sense, is transformed not only into a natural-philosophical discipline, but into what was in many respects the natural-philosophical discipline par excellence.Less
This chapter looks at attempts to quantify natural phenomena and, in particular, forces. Early efforts along these lines — notably by Galileo and Descartes — tried to extrapolate from statics to dynamics, whereas later in the century kinematics, as pioneered by Galileo, was taken as the model by Huygens and Newton. Newton, building on Hooke's suggestion that planetary orbits were not a given and unquestionable feature of the cosmos, was able to show how such orbits were generated and clarify the dynamics needed to account for the processes involved. In this way, mechanics, traditionally excluded from natural philosophy in the Aristotelian sense, is transformed not only into a natural-philosophical discipline, but into what was in many respects the natural-philosophical discipline par excellence.
Martin Schönfeld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project is a study of Kant’s early writings and their context. Although Kant’s career spanned more than half a century-from the first ...
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The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project is a study of Kant’s early writings and their context. Although Kant’s career spanned more than half a century-from the first texts in 1746 to his final notes in 1801, only his late and “critical” writings, from 1781 to 1790, have received attention. Kant’s pre-critical writings, by contrast, remain largely unknown. The Philosophy of the Young Kant tries to fill this gap by tracing his early pursuits: part I deals with Kant’s starting point and original question, the nature of energy; part II explores his quest for an answer, the “pre-critical project” of the 1750s; and part III traces the climax of the project in the 1760s and Kant’s crisis. Kant explored the interplay of force and continuum, the evolution from chaos to complexity, the ontological commercium of power points, and the dynamic patterns of matter, space, and autonomy. These early efforts had been widely dismissed as incoherent and misguided. But Kant’s pre-critical ideas actually form a coherent project, a long-term endeavor of combining a verifiable account of physical nature with fitting conceptions of purpose, freedom, and God. In retrospect, his early ideas anticipated numerous fundamental discoveries in fields as diverse as climate studies, ecology, particle physics, and cosmology. The book concludes that Kant’s pre-critical project is more timely and informative than expected, and that an acquaintance with his radically innovative starting point is indispensable for an appreciation of the depth of his oeuvre.Less
The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project is a study of Kant’s early writings and their context. Although Kant’s career spanned more than half a century-from the first texts in 1746 to his final notes in 1801, only his late and “critical” writings, from 1781 to 1790, have received attention. Kant’s pre-critical writings, by contrast, remain largely unknown. The Philosophy of the Young Kant tries to fill this gap by tracing his early pursuits: part I deals with Kant’s starting point and original question, the nature of energy; part II explores his quest for an answer, the “pre-critical project” of the 1750s; and part III traces the climax of the project in the 1760s and Kant’s crisis. Kant explored the interplay of force and continuum, the evolution from chaos to complexity, the ontological commercium of power points, and the dynamic patterns of matter, space, and autonomy. These early efforts had been widely dismissed as incoherent and misguided. But Kant’s pre-critical ideas actually form a coherent project, a long-term endeavor of combining a verifiable account of physical nature with fitting conceptions of purpose, freedom, and God. In retrospect, his early ideas anticipated numerous fundamental discoveries in fields as diverse as climate studies, ecology, particle physics, and cosmology. The book concludes that Kant’s pre-critical project is more timely and informative than expected, and that an acquaintance with his radically innovative starting point is indispensable for an appreciation of the depth of his oeuvre.
Martin Schönfeld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter explores the context of Kant’s first and original puzzle: what actually is force? It is an account of the debate over kinetic energy (Leibniz’s “living force” or vis viva) and the ...
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This chapter explores the context of Kant’s first and original puzzle: what actually is force? It is an account of the debate over kinetic energy (Leibniz’s “living force” or vis viva) and the historical transition of philosophy of nature to physics. Section 1 summarizes the explorations of energy and force from Galileo to Newton. Section 2 examines the fate and frustrations of the debate over the nature and measurement of dynamic phenomena, a quarrel first between Leibniz and the Cartesians, and next among Leibnizians, Cartesians, and Newtonians. Section 3 describes the historical outcome of the debate-the dual confirmation of the quantities at issue (Descartes’s momentum, and Leibniz’s energy) by d’Alembert and Euler, and their joint integration in Newtonian mechanics.Less
This chapter explores the context of Kant’s first and original puzzle: what actually is force? It is an account of the debate over kinetic energy (Leibniz’s “living force” or vis viva) and the historical transition of philosophy of nature to physics. Section 1 summarizes the explorations of energy and force from Galileo to Newton. Section 2 examines the fate and frustrations of the debate over the nature and measurement of dynamic phenomena, a quarrel first between Leibniz and the Cartesians, and next among Leibnizians, Cartesians, and Newtonians. Section 3 describes the historical outcome of the debate-the dual confirmation of the quantities at issue (Descartes’s momentum, and Leibniz’s energy) by d’Alembert and Euler, and their joint integration in Newtonian mechanics.
Martin Schöneld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter explores the role that True Estimation of Living Forces (1747) played in Kant’s intellectual development. Section 1 describes Kant’s way of dealing with controversies and discusses his ...
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This chapter explores the role that True Estimation of Living Forces (1747) played in Kant’s intellectual development. Section 1 describes Kant’s way of dealing with controversies and discusses his appropriation of Bilfinger’s heuristic strategy. Section 2 describes how quantities differ from physical objects for Kant, traces the Pietist roots of this view, and examines how this view of mathematics hamstrung Crusius and initially also Kant. Section 3 discusses the differences between Kantian dynamics and Newtonian mechanics, and details the reasons for Kant’s distance from Newton.Less
This chapter explores the role that True Estimation of Living Forces (1747) played in Kant’s intellectual development. Section 1 describes Kant’s way of dealing with controversies and discusses his appropriation of Bilfinger’s heuristic strategy. Section 2 describes how quantities differ from physical objects for Kant, traces the Pietist roots of this view, and examines how this view of mathematics hamstrung Crusius and initially also Kant. Section 3 discusses the differences between Kantian dynamics and Newtonian mechanics, and details the reasons for Kant’s distance from Newton.
Martin Schöneld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter explores Kant’s studies from 1754 to 1757, the application of his dynamic perspectives to fire, tides, the Earth’s rotation, climate, winds, and earthquakes. Section 1 surveys the ...
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This chapter explores Kant’s studies from 1754 to 1757, the application of his dynamic perspectives to fire, tides, the Earth’s rotation, climate, winds, and earthquakes. Section 1 surveys the background of Kant’s efforts in the 1750s, such as how his earthquake papers relate to the Lisbon tsunami (1755), and describes his co-discovery of sea wind patterns and his discovery of the monsoon dynamics. Section 2 examines Kant’s study of the fate of Earth’s rotation (1754) and its correct determination of the dynamic interplay among lunar period, tidal forces, oceanic friction, and the long-term slowdown of Earth’s rotation. Section 3 discusses Kant’s Master’s Thesis (1755), his chemical conjectures on fire, and his attempt to clarify the spatial energy field, the ether. Section 4 examines Kant’s qualitative approach to cosmological questions and his heuristic reliance on analogical reasoning.Less
This chapter explores Kant’s studies from 1754 to 1757, the application of his dynamic perspectives to fire, tides, the Earth’s rotation, climate, winds, and earthquakes. Section 1 surveys the background of Kant’s efforts in the 1750s, such as how his earthquake papers relate to the Lisbon tsunami (1755), and describes his co-discovery of sea wind patterns and his discovery of the monsoon dynamics. Section 2 examines Kant’s study of the fate of Earth’s rotation (1754) and its correct determination of the dynamic interplay among lunar period, tidal forces, oceanic friction, and the long-term slowdown of Earth’s rotation. Section 3 discusses Kant’s Master’s Thesis (1755), his chemical conjectures on fire, and his attempt to clarify the spatial energy field, the ether. Section 4 examines Kant’s qualitative approach to cosmological questions and his heuristic reliance on analogical reasoning.
Martin Schöneld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.003.0006
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter explores Kant’s second book, Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755). Section 1 describes the context of the book and Kant’s critique of static and anthropocentric ...
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This chapter explores Kant’s second book, Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755). Section 1 describes the context of the book and Kant’s critique of static and anthropocentric conceptions of nature by the Pietists, Physico-Theologians, Newton, and Wolff. Section 2 describes the goal of Kant’s teleology, its naturalized thrust toward well-ordered complexity or “relative perfection.” Section 3 examines the means of Kant”s teleology, the dynamic interplay of attractive and repulsive forces. Section 4 analyzes the application of teleology to cosmic phenomena such as the solar system, Wright’s earlier stipulation, Laplace’s later conjecture, and the eventual confirmation of Kant’s nebular hypothesis. Section 5 explores Kant’s arguments for life, humanity, and reason as products of cosmic evolution. Section 6 discusses Kant’s “static law” — that the mean planetary density determines the biospherical potential of reason — and its incongruity with the racism in Physical Geography (1756-60) and Beautiful and Sublime (1764). Section 7 describes Kant’s dynamic cosmology, explicates his “phoenix”-symbol, and discusses his various scientific aperçus.Less
This chapter explores Kant’s second book, Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755). Section 1 describes the context of the book and Kant’s critique of static and anthropocentric conceptions of nature by the Pietists, Physico-Theologians, Newton, and Wolff. Section 2 describes the goal of Kant’s teleology, its naturalized thrust toward well-ordered complexity or “relative perfection.” Section 3 examines the means of Kant”s teleology, the dynamic interplay of attractive and repulsive forces. Section 4 analyzes the application of teleology to cosmic phenomena such as the solar system, Wright’s earlier stipulation, Laplace’s later conjecture, and the eventual confirmation of Kant’s nebular hypothesis. Section 5 explores Kant’s arguments for life, humanity, and reason as products of cosmic evolution. Section 6 discusses Kant’s “static law” — that the mean planetary density determines the biospherical potential of reason — and its incongruity with the racism in Physical Geography (1756-60) and Beautiful and Sublime (1764). Section 7 describes Kant’s dynamic cosmology, explicates his “phoenix”-symbol, and discusses his various scientific aperçus.
Martin Schöneld
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195132182
- eISBN:
- 9780199786336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195132181.003.0010
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter explores the aftermath of Only Possible Argument and the Prize Essay (1764). Section 1 examines the curious preface of Kant’s third book, the exchange with Mendelssohn, and Kant’s ...
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This chapter explores the aftermath of Only Possible Argument and the Prize Essay (1764). Section 1 examines the curious preface of Kant’s third book, the exchange with Mendelssohn, and Kant’s growing metaphysical misgivings. Section 2 describes how Kant first arrives at the problem of the possibility of metaphysics and its initial analytic solution. Section 3 discusses Kant’s proposed methodology, its inspiration by Newton and Euler, and its relation to Spinoza’s geometric method and Tschirnhaus’s experimental method. Section 4 examines Kant’s conception of intuitive certainty of conceptual truth, the role of Crusius, and the exchange with Lambert.Less
This chapter explores the aftermath of Only Possible Argument and the Prize Essay (1764). Section 1 examines the curious preface of Kant’s third book, the exchange with Mendelssohn, and Kant’s growing metaphysical misgivings. Section 2 describes how Kant first arrives at the problem of the possibility of metaphysics and its initial analytic solution. Section 3 discusses Kant’s proposed methodology, its inspiration by Newton and Euler, and its relation to Spinoza’s geometric method and Tschirnhaus’s experimental method. Section 4 examines Kant’s conception of intuitive certainty of conceptual truth, the role of Crusius, and the exchange with Lambert.
Harvey R. Brown
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199275830
- eISBN:
- 9780191603914
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199275831.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter argues that Albert Einstein was not the first to use the relativity principle (RP) as a postulate in the treatment of a problem in physics. Christian Huygens had done so over two hundred ...
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This chapter argues that Albert Einstein was not the first to use the relativity principle (RP) as a postulate in the treatment of a problem in physics. Christian Huygens had done so over two hundred years earlier in his treatment of collisions. It is shown that even Newton in his pre-Principia writings viewed the RP as having the same axiomatic status as his laws. But the prominent role played by the principle in Einstein's 1905 paper on moving bodies in electrodynamics marked the beginning of a new attitude concerning the foundational status of symmetries in physics.Less
This chapter argues that Albert Einstein was not the first to use the relativity principle (RP) as a postulate in the treatment of a problem in physics. Christian Huygens had done so over two hundred years earlier in his treatment of collisions. It is shown that even Newton in his pre-Principia writings viewed the RP as having the same axiomatic status as his laws. But the prominent role played by the principle in Einstein's 1905 paper on moving bodies in electrodynamics marked the beginning of a new attitude concerning the foundational status of symmetries in physics.
Harvey R. Brown
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199275830
- eISBN:
- 9780191603914
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199275831.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the ...
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This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the Lorentz transformations. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Einstein's inertial frames are the same as Newton's.Less
This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the Lorentz transformations. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Einstein's inertial frames are the same as Newton's.
Nick Huggett
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195379518
- eISBN:
- 9780199776559
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195379518.003.0009
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
What, then, is space? It seems strange since it is part of the physical world but unlike other physical things; in some sense it is the ‘place’ where they all are. This chapter first explores how the ...
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What, then, is space? It seems strange since it is part of the physical world but unlike other physical things; in some sense it is the ‘place’ where they all are. This chapter first explores how the founders of modern science attempted to solve the problem: Descartes thought that space was just the objects that occupied it; Newton thought it some kind of separate container, ‘absolute space’; Leibniz simply denied that there was such a thing, instead claiming that all motion is relative, ‘relationism’. Newton showed that these philosophical debates have deep significance for physics: his ‘bucket’ thought‐experiment emphasizes that, according to his mechanics, things have motion distinct from their relative motion. The chapter ends by defending relationism against Newton's critique.Less
What, then, is space? It seems strange since it is part of the physical world but unlike other physical things; in some sense it is the ‘place’ where they all are. This chapter first explores how the founders of modern science attempted to solve the problem: Descartes thought that space was just the objects that occupied it; Newton thought it some kind of separate container, ‘absolute space’; Leibniz simply denied that there was such a thing, instead claiming that all motion is relative, ‘relationism’. Newton showed that these philosophical debates have deep significance for physics: his ‘bucket’ thought‐experiment emphasizes that, according to his mechanics, things have motion distinct from their relative motion. The chapter ends by defending relationism against Newton's critique.
Roy Sorensen
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195326574
- eISBN:
- 9780199870271
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195326574.003.0009
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
Newton says shadows are mere absences of light. Since the visual response to a lack of stimulation is black, all shadows would then be black. In his attack on Newton's optics, Goethe drew attention ...
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Newton says shadows are mere absences of light. Since the visual response to a lack of stimulation is black, all shadows would then be black. In his attack on Newton's optics, Goethe drew attention to subtle conditions under which there appear to be blue shadows. According to Goethe, all hues are colored shadows. Later, color scientists, most famously Edwin Land (founder of the Polaroid Corporation), appear to produce shadows of virtually every hue. Most contemporary color scientists inconsistently accept both Newton's account of light and standard, textbook demonstrations of colored shadows. They should regain consistency by distinguishing between shadows and "filtows."Less
Newton says shadows are mere absences of light. Since the visual response to a lack of stimulation is black, all shadows would then be black. In his attack on Newton's optics, Goethe drew attention to subtle conditions under which there appear to be blue shadows. According to Goethe, all hues are colored shadows. Later, color scientists, most famously Edwin Land (founder of the Polaroid Corporation), appear to produce shadows of virtually every hue. Most contemporary color scientists inconsistently accept both Newton's account of light and standard, textbook demonstrations of colored shadows. They should regain consistency by distinguishing between shadows and "filtows."
Tim Maudlin
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- May 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199218219
- eISBN:
- 9780191711596
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199218219.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
The main aim of this chapter is to clear the ground of objections to the notion that time, ‘of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external’. The three ...
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The main aim of this chapter is to clear the ground of objections to the notion that time, ‘of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external’. The three objections to the passage of time: logical, scientific, and epistemological, are discussed. It is argued that time passes, and that in virtue of that passage things change. There are no good logical, scientific, or philosophical arguments that cast doubt on the passing of time, and there are no impediments to representing in present physical theories that time passes.Less
The main aim of this chapter is to clear the ground of objections to the notion that time, ‘of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external’. The three objections to the passage of time: logical, scientific, and epistemological, are discussed. It is argued that time passes, and that in virtue of that passage things change. There are no good logical, scientific, or philosophical arguments that cast doubt on the passing of time, and there are no impediments to representing in present physical theories that time passes.
Terry Lyons and Zhongmin Qian
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198506485
- eISBN:
- 9780191709395
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198506485.003.0001
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Probability / Statistics
The concept of a differential equation controlled by a rough path can be motivated by quite simple examples. One such example is a linear system driven by two-dimensional noise. This example is ...
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The concept of a differential equation controlled by a rough path can be motivated by quite simple examples. One such example is a linear system driven by two-dimensional noise. This example is developed and an explicit answer is given to the question. Exactly what information should I extract from the driving stimulus or noise in order to accurately predict the response? The notions of a controlled system of Chen's iterated integral are introduced. The main notion in this book is the concept of a rough path. Almost all paths that one encounters in everyday life are only described approximately. Newton observed that a smooth path is actually quite well approximated by its chords. If one wants to describe a path γ over a short time interval from s to t, then it is enough to evaluate γ at these two times and consider the approximation that comes from replacing γ by the straight line with the same increment. This approach is not adequate if the control or path γ is oscillatory on the scale witnessed by the times s and t. If the path γ represented a text, then the chord is simply a word count. It turns out that a better description, one which takes into account the order of the events represented by γ, can be achieved by a description of γ that involves its first few Chen iterated integrals.Less
The concept of a differential equation controlled by a rough path can be motivated by quite simple examples. One such example is a linear system driven by two-dimensional noise. This example is developed and an explicit answer is given to the question. Exactly what information should I extract from the driving stimulus or noise in order to accurately predict the response? The notions of a controlled system of Chen's iterated integral are introduced. The main notion in this book is the concept of a rough path. Almost all paths that one encounters in everyday life are only described approximately. Newton observed that a smooth path is actually quite well approximated by its chords. If one wants to describe a path γ over a short time interval from s to t, then it is enough to evaluate γ at these two times and consider the approximation that comes from replacing γ by the straight line with the same increment. This approach is not adequate if the control or path γ is oscillatory on the scale witnessed by the times s and t. If the path γ represented a text, then the chord is simply a word count. It turns out that a better description, one which takes into account the order of the events represented by γ, can be achieved by a description of γ that involves its first few Chen iterated integrals.
D. A. Bini, G. Latouche, and B. Meini
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198527688
- eISBN:
- 9780191713286
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198527688.003.0006
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Numerical Analysis
The major iterative algorithms based on functional iteration techniques for solving nonlinear matrix equations are described, analysed, and compared in this chapter. First, the basic concepts on ...
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The major iterative algorithms based on functional iteration techniques for solving nonlinear matrix equations are described, analysed, and compared in this chapter. First, the basic concepts on fixed point iterations are recalled, then linearly convergent iterations are treated, and finally Newton’s iteration is considered.Less
The major iterative algorithms based on functional iteration techniques for solving nonlinear matrix equations are described, analysed, and compared in this chapter. First, the basic concepts on fixed point iterations are recalled, then linearly convergent iterations are treated, and finally Newton’s iteration is considered.
