Philip Lutgendorf
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- May 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195309225
- eISBN:
- 9780199785391
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309225.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Hinduism
While surveying textual sources, iconography, and other historical evidence for the development of Hanuman's popular cult, this chapter also interrogates the explanatory narratives that have been ...
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While surveying textual sources, iconography, and other historical evidence for the development of Hanuman's popular cult, this chapter also interrogates the explanatory narratives that have been constructed around this evidence by earlier scholars. After examining attempts to locate Hanuman's origins in pre-Vedic religion or in the Rig Veda, and in the cult of yakshas or earth-spirits, it examines the role of the wind (Hanuman's legendary father) in Ayurveda, and Hanuman's additional kinship with Shiva and Shaivism. It then traces the development of Hanuman's persona over roughly two millennia from the Valmiki Ramayana to the Rama tales in the Puranas, in the literature of Jainism, and in vernacular language epics. Interrogating a recent and influential theory that Hanuman's cult reflects a Hindu response to the excesses of Muslim hegemony, the chapter reexamines three historical periods that often figure in this argument: the late Vijayanagara empire, the early Maratha kingdom, and the “warrior ascetics” of the Ramanandi sadhu order in the late Mughal Empire and early colonial periods. It is argued that the apparent efflorescence of devotion to Hanuman in each of these contexts reflects a more complex range of historical and social factors than has generally been recognized.Less
While surveying textual sources, iconography, and other historical evidence for the development of Hanuman's popular cult, this chapter also interrogates the explanatory narratives that have been constructed around this evidence by earlier scholars. After examining attempts to locate Hanuman's origins in pre-Vedic religion or in the Rig Veda, and in the cult of yakshas or earth-spirits, it examines the role of the wind (Hanuman's legendary father) in Ayurveda, and Hanuman's additional kinship with Shiva and Shaivism. It then traces the development of Hanuman's persona over roughly two millennia from the Valmiki Ramayana to the Rama tales in the Puranas, in the literature of Jainism, and in vernacular language epics. Interrogating a recent and influential theory that Hanuman's cult reflects a Hindu response to the excesses of Muslim hegemony, the chapter reexamines three historical periods that often figure in this argument: the late Vijayanagara empire, the early Maratha kingdom, and the “warrior ascetics” of the Ramanandi sadhu order in the late Mughal Empire and early colonial periods. It is argued that the apparent efflorescence of devotion to Hanuman in each of these contexts reflects a more complex range of historical and social factors than has generally been recognized.
William Bain
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199260263
- eISBN:
- 9780191600975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199260265.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
The idea of trusteeship in international society originates in late 18th century British India. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the emergence of trusteeship as a justification of political ...
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The idea of trusteeship in international society originates in late 18th century British India. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the emergence of trusteeship as a justification of political power in territories administered by the East India Company. The chapter has five sections: From Merchant to Sovereign in British India; The Claim to Rule; The Relations of Ruler and Subject; The Purpose of the Office of Government; and Providing Protection, Directing Improvement.Less
The idea of trusteeship in international society originates in late 18th century British India. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the emergence of trusteeship as a justification of political power in territories administered by the East India Company. The chapter has five sections: From Merchant to Sovereign in British India; The Claim to Rule; The Relations of Ruler and Subject; The Purpose of the Office of Government; and Providing Protection, Directing Improvement.
Kaushik Roy
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- March 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780198099109
- eISBN:
- 9780199085286
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198099109.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
The Mughal intervention in Afghanistan started with the Chaghtai Turkish warlord named Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. Babur mainly faced rural insurgencies. Afghanistan even today is a land of small ...
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The Mughal intervention in Afghanistan started with the Chaghtai Turkish warlord named Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. Babur mainly faced rural insurgencies. Afghanistan even today is a land of small villages. Approximately 80 per cent of the population lives in the countryside. Military recruitment for the Afghans was important because only 12 per cent of Afghanistan’s land is arable even now. The Mughals, Safavids, and the Uzbeks, despite being Muslim themselves, faced tough opposition from the Afghans. This does not imply that Islam has played no role in Afghan insurgency. Rather, the chapter underscores that Islam in general and jihad in particular are not crucial components of Afghan opposition to external invaders in their homelands. From the medieval era, the control for Afghanistan represented a sort of ‘Great Game’ for controlling the heart of Eurasia. The Mughals were more successful than the British in maintaining a permanent presence in Afghanistan.Less
The Mughal intervention in Afghanistan started with the Chaghtai Turkish warlord named Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. Babur mainly faced rural insurgencies. Afghanistan even today is a land of small villages. Approximately 80 per cent of the population lives in the countryside. Military recruitment for the Afghans was important because only 12 per cent of Afghanistan’s land is arable even now. The Mughals, Safavids, and the Uzbeks, despite being Muslim themselves, faced tough opposition from the Afghans. This does not imply that Islam has played no role in Afghan insurgency. Rather, the chapter underscores that Islam in general and jihad in particular are not crucial components of Afghan opposition to external invaders in their homelands. From the medieval era, the control for Afghanistan represented a sort of ‘Great Game’ for controlling the heart of Eurasia. The Mughals were more successful than the British in maintaining a permanent presence in Afghanistan.
Philip J. Stern
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195393736
- eISBN:
- 9780199896837
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195393736.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, World Early Modern History, British and Irish Early Modern History
This chapter traces the development of East India Company’s colonial system in the 1690s. It argues that, despite serious setbacks, including the invasion and occupation of Bombay by Mughal-allied ...
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This chapter traces the development of East India Company’s colonial system in the 1690s. It argues that, despite serious setbacks, including the invasion and occupation of Bombay by Mughal-allied forces in 1689, there was continuity between the Company’s earlier efforts, as described particularly in chapters 1 and 3, and those in the last decade of the seventeenth century to preserve and enhance its establishment abroad. In the aftermath of the invasion of Bombay, Company leaders became ever more convinced of the need for a strong and vibrant political system in Asia. It continued to emphasize the growth and prosperity of its settlements, sought new ones, such as Fort St. David and Anjengo, and continued to seek a firm grant from the Mughal Empire that could secure its rights in India. It also confronted new challenges to its authority, particularly Anglo-American pirates in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, which both created a political crisis for the Company with Mughal authorities but also presented opportunities to expand its maritime jurisdiction and power.Less
This chapter traces the development of East India Company’s colonial system in the 1690s. It argues that, despite serious setbacks, including the invasion and occupation of Bombay by Mughal-allied forces in 1689, there was continuity between the Company’s earlier efforts, as described particularly in chapters 1 and 3, and those in the last decade of the seventeenth century to preserve and enhance its establishment abroad. In the aftermath of the invasion of Bombay, Company leaders became ever more convinced of the need for a strong and vibrant political system in Asia. It continued to emphasize the growth and prosperity of its settlements, sought new ones, such as Fort St. David and Anjengo, and continued to seek a firm grant from the Mughal Empire that could secure its rights in India. It also confronted new challenges to its authority, particularly Anglo-American pirates in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, which both created a political crisis for the Company with Mughal authorities but also presented opportunities to expand its maritime jurisdiction and power.
Kumkum Chatterjee
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- October 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195698800
- eISBN:
- 9780199080243
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195698800.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
This introductory chapter outlines the core theme of the book, which involves an exploration of the cultures of history writing in early modern Bengal. The seventeenth, eighteenth, and the first ...
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This introductory chapter outlines the core theme of the book, which involves an exploration of the cultures of history writing in early modern Bengal. The seventeenth, eighteenth, and the first decade or so of the nineteenth centuries provide the temporal framework for this study — a period which witnessed the consolidation of the Mughal political and cultural order, its subsequent political decline and the transition to early colonial rule. A related theme which runs through the book is the connection between culture and the production of history and specifically, between a Persianized Mughal political culture and history writing. The chapter then presents a critique of pre-modern Indian historiography, followed by discussions of the Mughal Empire and Persianization, and interactions between Islamicate and Indic cultures. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.Less
This introductory chapter outlines the core theme of the book, which involves an exploration of the cultures of history writing in early modern Bengal. The seventeenth, eighteenth, and the first decade or so of the nineteenth centuries provide the temporal framework for this study — a period which witnessed the consolidation of the Mughal political and cultural order, its subsequent political decline and the transition to early colonial rule. A related theme which runs through the book is the connection between culture and the production of history and specifically, between a Persianized Mughal political culture and history writing. The chapter then presents a critique of pre-modern Indian historiography, followed by discussions of the Mughal Empire and Persianization, and interactions between Islamicate and Indic cultures. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
P. J. MARSHALL
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199226665
- eISBN:
- 9780191706813
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226665.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Early Modern History, Political History
Anglo-French worldwide rivalry extended to India, where both nations traded through their East India companies. This rivalry, which had led to almost continuous warfare since the 1740s, merged into ...
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Anglo-French worldwide rivalry extended to India, where both nations traded through their East India companies. This rivalry, which had led to almost continuous warfare since the 1740s, merged into the rivalry of the Indian powers that were emerging as independent successor states from the breakdown of the Mughal Empire. The Europeans formed alliances with Indian princes. These alliances gave the British and French a potentially commanding influence over some of the Indian states. This influence led to total British control over Bengal in the events that followed the overthrow of the local ruler at the battle of Plassey in 1757. In the south, the British were able to defeat the French, but their position was weaker. Even so, by the end of the war the British East India Company had become a major territorial power in India, closely allied to the British state.Less
Anglo-French worldwide rivalry extended to India, where both nations traded through their East India companies. This rivalry, which had led to almost continuous warfare since the 1740s, merged into the rivalry of the Indian powers that were emerging as independent successor states from the breakdown of the Mughal Empire. The Europeans formed alliances with Indian princes. These alliances gave the British and French a potentially commanding influence over some of the Indian states. This influence led to total British control over Bengal in the events that followed the overthrow of the local ruler at the battle of Plassey in 1757. In the south, the British were able to defeat the French, but their position was weaker. Even so, by the end of the war the British East India Company had become a major territorial power in India, closely allied to the British state.
Burak Akçapar
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780198099574
- eISBN:
- 9780199084609
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198099574.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
Chapter 3 makes the point that neither ethnic linkages nor geostrategicinterests were sufficient for strong cooperation in the history of the long relationship between the Ottoman and Mughal ...
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Chapter 3 makes the point that neither ethnic linkages nor geostrategicinterests were sufficient for strong cooperation in the history of the long relationship between the Ottoman and Mughal dynasties. The chapter, thus, discusses the ethnic commonalities including the Turkic roots of the two ruling families and makes the point that kinship ties militated against comity and instead provoked competition. The chapter then charts the evolution of political and geostrategic relations since sixteenth century between Ottomans and India and the introduction of the triangular relationship with the advent of the British Raj in India. The chapter concludes by the dynamics of this triangular relationship and the dilemmas it has created for the Indian Muslims in view of the increasingly hostile British attitude against the Ottoman Empire against the will of the Indians.Less
Chapter 3 makes the point that neither ethnic linkages nor geostrategicinterests were sufficient for strong cooperation in the history of the long relationship between the Ottoman and Mughal dynasties. The chapter, thus, discusses the ethnic commonalities including the Turkic roots of the two ruling families and makes the point that kinship ties militated against comity and instead provoked competition. The chapter then charts the evolution of political and geostrategic relations since sixteenth century between Ottomans and India and the introduction of the triangular relationship with the advent of the British Raj in India. The chapter concludes by the dynamics of this triangular relationship and the dilemmas it has created for the Indian Muslims in view of the increasingly hostile British attitude against the Ottoman Empire against the will of the Indians.
Ruby Lal
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520254435
- eISBN:
- 9780520941519
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520254435.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
Abu-l Fazl (1551–1602), the imperial chronicler for Akbar the Great (1556–1605), recorded the regulations regarding the Mughal haram. The term haram came to be the most common description of the ...
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Abu-l Fazl (1551–1602), the imperial chronicler for Akbar the Great (1556–1605), recorded the regulations regarding the Mughal haram. The term haram came to be the most common description of the women's sphere and signified important changes in Mughal domestic life. Mughal women—or at least most of them—became invisible in the public pronouncements and activities of the empire. This invisibility is especially striking in the case of Akbar's wives, including the mothers of his sons. Akbar's foster community pushed the boundaries of what would normally be recognized as blood relations and relationships of marriage and birth. This chapter demonstrates how Abu-l Fazl established new norms by representing Akbar's domestic life. It investigates how Mughal's palace women responded to the new imperial regulations, and how women's negotiation of the new sovereign ideals became a crucial element in the making of the monarchy—at times, by rupturing those very ideals. It also examines the visible matriarchs of the Mughal Empire, intercession and counseling by senior women, and senior women's hajj under the leadership of Gulbadan Begum.Less
Abu-l Fazl (1551–1602), the imperial chronicler for Akbar the Great (1556–1605), recorded the regulations regarding the Mughal haram. The term haram came to be the most common description of the women's sphere and signified important changes in Mughal domestic life. Mughal women—or at least most of them—became invisible in the public pronouncements and activities of the empire. This invisibility is especially striking in the case of Akbar's wives, including the mothers of his sons. Akbar's foster community pushed the boundaries of what would normally be recognized as blood relations and relationships of marriage and birth. This chapter demonstrates how Abu-l Fazl established new norms by representing Akbar's domestic life. It investigates how Mughal's palace women responded to the new imperial regulations, and how women's negotiation of the new sovereign ideals became a crucial element in the making of the monarchy—at times, by rupturing those very ideals. It also examines the visible matriarchs of the Mughal Empire, intercession and counseling by senior women, and senior women's hajj under the leadership of Gulbadan Begum.
C. A. Bayly
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198077466
- eISBN:
- 9780199081110
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198077466.003.0023
- Subject:
- History, Economic History
This chapter discusses some aspects of urban society which provided a background to all these conflicts, specifically rapid population movement and poverty. It explains that relationship between ...
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This chapter discusses some aspects of urban society which provided a background to all these conflicts, specifically rapid population movement and poverty. It explains that relationship between political power, elite consumption, trade and the agrarian society established in the mid-eighteenth century had come under pressure by 1830 and this pressure originated in the incompatibility of the colonial state and the Indian successor regimes to the Mughal Empire. It argues that many conflicts between different social groups reflect the changing role of the state. The British had eroded the old forms of government and redistribution without replacing them with new system.Less
This chapter discusses some aspects of urban society which provided a background to all these conflicts, specifically rapid population movement and poverty. It explains that relationship between political power, elite consumption, trade and the agrarian society established in the mid-eighteenth century had come under pressure by 1830 and this pressure originated in the incompatibility of the colonial state and the Indian successor regimes to the Mughal Empire. It argues that many conflicts between different social groups reflect the changing role of the state. The British had eroded the old forms of government and redistribution without replacing them with new system.
Audrey. Truschke
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780231173629
- eISBN:
- 9780231540971
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231173629.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
Culture of Encounters documents the fascinating exchange between the Persian-speaking Islamic elite of the Mughal Empire and traditional Sanskrit scholars, which engendered a dynamic idea of Mughal ...
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Culture of Encounters documents the fascinating exchange between the Persian-speaking Islamic elite of the Mughal Empire and traditional Sanskrit scholars, which engendered a dynamic idea of Mughal rule essential to the empire’s survival. This history begins with the invitation of Brahman and Jain intellectuals to King Akbar’s court in the 1560s, then details the numerous Mughal-backed texts they and their Mughal interlocutors produced under emperors Akbar, Jahangir (1605–1627), and Shah Jahan (1628–1658). Many works, including Sanskrit epics and historical texts, were translated into Persian, elevating the political position of Brahmans and Jains and cultivating a voracious appetite for Indian writings throughout the Mughal world. The first book to read these Sanskrit and Persian works in tandem, Culture of Encounters recasts the Mughal Empire as a polyglot polity that collaborated with its Indian subjects to envision its sovereignty. The work also reframes the development of Brahman and Jain communities under Mughal rule, which coalesced around carefully selected, politically salient memories of imperial interaction. Along with its groundbreaking findings, Culture of Encounters certifies the critical role of the sociology of empire in building the Mughal polity, which came to irrevocably shape the literary and ruling cultures of early modern India.Less
Culture of Encounters documents the fascinating exchange between the Persian-speaking Islamic elite of the Mughal Empire and traditional Sanskrit scholars, which engendered a dynamic idea of Mughal rule essential to the empire’s survival. This history begins with the invitation of Brahman and Jain intellectuals to King Akbar’s court in the 1560s, then details the numerous Mughal-backed texts they and their Mughal interlocutors produced under emperors Akbar, Jahangir (1605–1627), and Shah Jahan (1628–1658). Many works, including Sanskrit epics and historical texts, were translated into Persian, elevating the political position of Brahmans and Jains and cultivating a voracious appetite for Indian writings throughout the Mughal world. The first book to read these Sanskrit and Persian works in tandem, Culture of Encounters recasts the Mughal Empire as a polyglot polity that collaborated with its Indian subjects to envision its sovereignty. The work also reframes the development of Brahman and Jain communities under Mughal rule, which coalesced around carefully selected, politically salient memories of imperial interaction. Along with its groundbreaking findings, Culture of Encounters certifies the critical role of the sociology of empire in building the Mughal polity, which came to irrevocably shape the literary and ruling cultures of early modern India.
Peter van der Veer
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128146
- eISBN:
- 9781400848553
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128146.003.0008
- Subject:
- Anthropology, Social and Cultural Anthropology
This chapter scrutinizes some of the elements of the “minoritization” of Muslims in India and China. Indian Muslims have a history that gives them a centrality in processes of state formation in ...
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This chapter scrutinizes some of the elements of the “minoritization” of Muslims in India and China. Indian Muslims have a history that gives them a centrality in processes of state formation in India, as exemplified by the Mughal Empire, but also by the postcolonial formation of Pakistan and Bangladesh, which cannot be found in the history of Chinese Muslims. In the comparison between India and China, the chapter highlights that despite the differences in numerical strength it is the transformation of Muslims from a variety of different groups into a “minority” that in both cases require scrutiny in relation to the construction of a national majority.Less
This chapter scrutinizes some of the elements of the “minoritization” of Muslims in India and China. Indian Muslims have a history that gives them a centrality in processes of state formation in India, as exemplified by the Mughal Empire, but also by the postcolonial formation of Pakistan and Bangladesh, which cannot be found in the history of Chinese Muslims. In the comparison between India and China, the chapter highlights that despite the differences in numerical strength it is the transformation of Muslims from a variety of different groups into a “minority” that in both cases require scrutiny in relation to the construction of a national majority.
Robert Travers
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- December 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199391783
- eISBN:
- 9780190213213
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199391783.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, World Early Modern History, Social History
From the middle of the eighteenth century the British in India used treaties with South Asian rulers to give legal form and sanction to their growing military and territorial power. While the British ...
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From the middle of the eighteenth century the British in India used treaties with South Asian rulers to give legal form and sanction to their growing military and territorial power. While the British East India Company used treaties to subordinate or ally with other Indian regional states, British critics of the Company’s military conquests questioned the legitimacy of its diplomatic activities and accused the Company of violating the principles of the law of nations. Thus treaty making became a critical site for generating new imperial imaginaries in Britain, as well as for extending British power in South Asia. By the end of the eighteenth century British officials were using increasingly unequal treaties with Indian states, justified by pervasive stereotypes of “faithless” and despotic Indian rulers, to assert their imperial hegemony.Less
From the middle of the eighteenth century the British in India used treaties with South Asian rulers to give legal form and sanction to their growing military and territorial power. While the British East India Company used treaties to subordinate or ally with other Indian regional states, British critics of the Company’s military conquests questioned the legitimacy of its diplomatic activities and accused the Company of violating the principles of the law of nations. Thus treaty making became a critical site for generating new imperial imaginaries in Britain, as well as for extending British power in South Asia. By the end of the eighteenth century British officials were using increasingly unequal treaties with Indian states, justified by pervasive stereotypes of “faithless” and despotic Indian rulers, to assert their imperial hegemony.
Thomas Barfield
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691145686
- eISBN:
- 9781400834532
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691145686.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
This book traces the historic struggles and the changing nature of political authority in this volatile region of the world—Afghanistan—from the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century to the Taliban ...
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This book traces the historic struggles and the changing nature of political authority in this volatile region of the world—Afghanistan—from the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century to the Taliban resurgence today. The book introduces readers to the bewildering diversity of tribal and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, explaining what unites them as Afghans despite the regional, cultural, and political differences that divide them. It shows how governing these peoples was relatively easy when power was concentrated in a small dynastic elite, but how this delicate political order broke down in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when Afghanistan's rulers mobilized rural militias to expel first the British and later the Soviets. Armed insurgency proved remarkably successful against the foreign occupiers, but it also undermined the Afghan government's authority and rendered the country ever more difficult to govern as time passed. The book vividly describes how Afghanistan's armed factions plunged the country into a civil war, giving rise to clerical rule by the Taliban and Afghanistan's isolation from the world. It examines why the American invasion in the wake of September 11 toppled the Taliban so quickly, and how this easy victory lulled the United States into falsely believing that a viable state could be built just as easily. This book is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand how a land conquered and ruled by foreign dynasties for more than a thousand years became the “graveyard of empires” for the British and Soviets, and what the United States must do to avoid a similar fate.Less
This book traces the historic struggles and the changing nature of political authority in this volatile region of the world—Afghanistan—from the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century to the Taliban resurgence today. The book introduces readers to the bewildering diversity of tribal and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, explaining what unites them as Afghans despite the regional, cultural, and political differences that divide them. It shows how governing these peoples was relatively easy when power was concentrated in a small dynastic elite, but how this delicate political order broke down in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when Afghanistan's rulers mobilized rural militias to expel first the British and later the Soviets. Armed insurgency proved remarkably successful against the foreign occupiers, but it also undermined the Afghan government's authority and rendered the country ever more difficult to govern as time passed. The book vividly describes how Afghanistan's armed factions plunged the country into a civil war, giving rise to clerical rule by the Taliban and Afghanistan's isolation from the world. It examines why the American invasion in the wake of September 11 toppled the Taliban so quickly, and how this easy victory lulled the United States into falsely believing that a viable state could be built just as easily. This book is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand how a land conquered and ruled by foreign dynasties for more than a thousand years became the “graveyard of empires” for the British and Soviets, and what the United States must do to avoid a similar fate.
Nelly Hanna
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- May 2015
- ISBN:
- 9789774166648
- eISBN:
- 9781617975905
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- American University in Cairo Press
- DOI:
- 10.5743/cairo/9789774166648.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, World Modern History
The mainstream view in historical studies considers the main sources of modern world history to be the Reformation, the expansion of Europe into America and Asia, the formation of trading companies, ...
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The mainstream view in historical studies considers the main sources of modern world history to be the Reformation, the expansion of Europe into America and Asia, the formation of trading companies, and scientific discoveries. All these originate in Europe, considering the non-European world (Egypt included) “outside of history.” The book attempts to redress this bias by exploring a number of channels. One of these is to identify worldwide trends, such as international trade, that touched not only Egypt but also India, Southeast Asia, and Europe, and had a bearing on many aspects of life. A second channel explores Egypt’s position in this trade. The vitality of its textile industry and trade (prior to the introduction of mechanized production) allowed it to export its cloth to many parts of the world. Another channel is the exchanges of know-how and technology. The book shows that in the 18th century these were far from being one-way exchanges from Europe to the rest of the world. Multiple exchanges in numerous directions that included the Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empires suggest a multi-centered rather than a unipolar world during the early modern period.Less
The mainstream view in historical studies considers the main sources of modern world history to be the Reformation, the expansion of Europe into America and Asia, the formation of trading companies, and scientific discoveries. All these originate in Europe, considering the non-European world (Egypt included) “outside of history.” The book attempts to redress this bias by exploring a number of channels. One of these is to identify worldwide trends, such as international trade, that touched not only Egypt but also India, Southeast Asia, and Europe, and had a bearing on many aspects of life. A second channel explores Egypt’s position in this trade. The vitality of its textile industry and trade (prior to the introduction of mechanized production) allowed it to export its cloth to many parts of the world. Another channel is the exchanges of know-how and technology. The book shows that in the 18th century these were far from being one-way exchanges from Europe to the rest of the world. Multiple exchanges in numerous directions that included the Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empires suggest a multi-centered rather than a unipolar world during the early modern period.
Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Muzaffar Alam
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231158114
- eISBN:
- 9780231527903
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231158114.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
Between the mid-sixteenth and early nineteenth century, the Mughal Empire was an Indo-Islamic dynasty that ruled as far as Bengal in the east and Kabul in the west, as high as Kashmir in the north ...
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Between the mid-sixteenth and early nineteenth century, the Mughal Empire was an Indo-Islamic dynasty that ruled as far as Bengal in the east and Kabul in the west, as high as Kashmir in the north and the Kaveri basin in the south. The Mughals constructed a sophisticated, complex system of government that facilitated an era of profound artistic and architectural achievement. They promoted the place of Persian culture in Indian society and set the groundwork for South Asia's future development. This book presents nine chapters on the Mughal Empire, framed by an introductory reflection. Making creative use of materials written in Persian, Indian vernacular languages, and a variety of European languages, the chapters accomplish interesting innovations in Mughal historiography, intertwining political, cultural, and commercial themes while exploring diplomacy, state-formation, history-writing, religious debate, and political thought. Chapters centre on confrontations between different source materials that the text then reconciles, enabling readers to participate in both the debate and resolution of competing claims. The introduction discusses the comparative and historiographical approach of the work and its place within the literature on Mughal rule.Less
Between the mid-sixteenth and early nineteenth century, the Mughal Empire was an Indo-Islamic dynasty that ruled as far as Bengal in the east and Kabul in the west, as high as Kashmir in the north and the Kaveri basin in the south. The Mughals constructed a sophisticated, complex system of government that facilitated an era of profound artistic and architectural achievement. They promoted the place of Persian culture in Indian society and set the groundwork for South Asia's future development. This book presents nine chapters on the Mughal Empire, framed by an introductory reflection. Making creative use of materials written in Persian, Indian vernacular languages, and a variety of European languages, the chapters accomplish interesting innovations in Mughal historiography, intertwining political, cultural, and commercial themes while exploring diplomacy, state-formation, history-writing, religious debate, and political thought. Chapters centre on confrontations between different source materials that the text then reconciles, enabling readers to participate in both the debate and resolution of competing claims. The introduction discusses the comparative and historiographical approach of the work and its place within the literature on Mughal rule.
Kumkum Chatterjee
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- October 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195698800
- eISBN:
- 9780199080243
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195698800.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
This book examines the nature and function of history writing in India by focusing on early modern traditions of historiography with particular reference to Bengal. Situating distinctive cultures of ...
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This book examines the nature and function of history writing in India by focusing on early modern traditions of historiography with particular reference to Bengal. Situating distinctive cultures of history vis-á-vis their relevant political and cultural contexts, it highlights the richness, variety and politically-sensitive character of a range of oral and textual narratives. The volume also makes a significant contribution to the intellectual and cultural history of early modern India by exploring interactions between regional and vernacular cultures on the one hand, and the Islamicate, Persianized culture of the Mughal Empire on the other. Strongly grounded in primary sources, it re-examines the concepts of authority, evidence, and method in early modern historiography. Examining the cultural environment in which history was produced and used, it also discusses the debates surrounding the culture of history writing in India.Less
This book examines the nature and function of history writing in India by focusing on early modern traditions of historiography with particular reference to Bengal. Situating distinctive cultures of history vis-á-vis their relevant political and cultural contexts, it highlights the richness, variety and politically-sensitive character of a range of oral and textual narratives. The volume also makes a significant contribution to the intellectual and cultural history of early modern India by exploring interactions between regional and vernacular cultures on the one hand, and the Islamicate, Persianized culture of the Mughal Empire on the other. Strongly grounded in primary sources, it re-examines the concepts of authority, evidence, and method in early modern historiography. Examining the cultural environment in which history was produced and used, it also discusses the debates surrounding the culture of history writing in India.
Munis D. Faruqui
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780198081678
- eISBN:
- 9780199085002
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198081678.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
In 1656, towards the end of a brilliant two-decades-long scholarly career, Dara Shukoh commissioned a translation of the Upanishads. He believed he had found the lost kitab al-maknun, or ...
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In 1656, towards the end of a brilliant two-decades-long scholarly career, Dara Shukoh commissioned a translation of the Upanishads. He believed he had found the lost kitab al-maknun, or hidden/protected book, referred to in the Quran as humanity’s first monotheistic text. This chapter explores the journey that led Dara Shukoh to proclaim the Upanishads’ importance to Muslims and to the world; it interrogates the prince’s reliance on Shankaracharya, the eighth century Advaita Vedantin, for commentary on the Upanishads; and it investigates the political context in which Dara Shukoh was operating to indicate one possible way to understand his idiosyncratic editorial decisions and his controversial proclamations.Less
In 1656, towards the end of a brilliant two-decades-long scholarly career, Dara Shukoh commissioned a translation of the Upanishads. He believed he had found the lost kitab al-maknun, or hidden/protected book, referred to in the Quran as humanity’s first monotheistic text. This chapter explores the journey that led Dara Shukoh to proclaim the Upanishads’ importance to Muslims and to the world; it interrogates the prince’s reliance on Shankaracharya, the eighth century Advaita Vedantin, for commentary on the Upanishads; and it investigates the political context in which Dara Shukoh was operating to indicate one possible way to understand his idiosyncratic editorial decisions and his controversial proclamations.
A. Azfar Moin
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231160377
- eISBN:
- 9780231504713
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231160377.003.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This introductory chapter provides a background of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, and its antecedents and parallels in Timurid Central Asia and Safavid Iran. These interconnected ...
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This introductory chapter provides a background of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, and its antecedents and parallels in Timurid Central Asia and Safavid Iran. These interconnected milieus offer an ideal window to explore and rethink the relationship between Muslim kingship and sainthood, for it was here that Muslim rulers came to express their sovereignty, and embody their sacrality in the manner of Sufi saints and holy saviors. In their classical phases, both the Mughals and the Safavids embraced a style of sovereignty that was “saintly” and “messianic,” modeling their courts on the pattern of Sufi orders, and fashioning themselves as the promised messiah. This style of sovereignty resulted in the development of a set of knowledge and rituals to make the body of the king sacred, creating a prophesied savior, a figure who would set right the unbearable order of things, and inaugurate a new era of peace and justice—the new millennium.Less
This introductory chapter provides a background of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, and its antecedents and parallels in Timurid Central Asia and Safavid Iran. These interconnected milieus offer an ideal window to explore and rethink the relationship between Muslim kingship and sainthood, for it was here that Muslim rulers came to express their sovereignty, and embody their sacrality in the manner of Sufi saints and holy saviors. In their classical phases, both the Mughals and the Safavids embraced a style of sovereignty that was “saintly” and “messianic,” modeling their courts on the pattern of Sufi orders, and fashioning themselves as the promised messiah. This style of sovereignty resulted in the development of a set of knowledge and rituals to make the body of the king sacred, creating a prophesied savior, a figure who would set right the unbearable order of things, and inaugurate a new era of peace and justice—the new millennium.
Eva Orthmann
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780198081678
- eISBN:
- 9780199085002
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198081678.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, Indian History
The Mughal emperor Humāyūn has been famous for his penchant for splendid and extravagant festivities. This inclination has often been regarded as a sign of personal weakness and therefore been linked ...
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The Mughal emperor Humāyūn has been famous for his penchant for splendid and extravagant festivities. This inclination has often been regarded as a sign of personal weakness and therefore been linked to his failure in preserving and stabilizing his father Bābur’s conquests in India. The following chapter argues that these festivities as well as other innovations and some of Humāyūn’s bureaucratic provisions testify to the emperor’s attempts to create an ideology based on ancient Iranian, philosophical and mystical notions of sovereignty, acceptable to both Muslim and non-Muslim subjects of his realm. While Humāyūn’s bureaucratic provisions were abandoned after his sudden death many ideological constituents of his realm survived and contributed substantially to the later elaboration of Mughal imperial ideology in the time of Akbar.Less
The Mughal emperor Humāyūn has been famous for his penchant for splendid and extravagant festivities. This inclination has often been regarded as a sign of personal weakness and therefore been linked to his failure in preserving and stabilizing his father Bābur’s conquests in India. The following chapter argues that these festivities as well as other innovations and some of Humāyūn’s bureaucratic provisions testify to the emperor’s attempts to create an ideology based on ancient Iranian, philosophical and mystical notions of sovereignty, acceptable to both Muslim and non-Muslim subjects of his realm. While Humāyūn’s bureaucratic provisions were abandoned after his sudden death many ideological constituents of his realm survived and contributed substantially to the later elaboration of Mughal imperial ideology in the time of Akbar.
Ruby Lal
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780226307213
- eISBN:
- 9780226307244
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226307244.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, Imperialism and Colonialism
This chapter examines the role of gender and age in the construction of domesticity in the Mughal Empire. It argues that the increasing number and invisibility of women in the imperial harem in ...
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This chapter examines the role of gender and age in the construction of domesticity in the Mughal Empire. It argues that the increasing number and invisibility of women in the imperial harem in Mughal India marked the changing claims by the sultan to a differentiating divinity. This chapter also suggests that the secreting of the women allowed Hindu and Muslim ritual practices to coexist so that the two cultures could be connected and that the mixing of cultures took place behind the mystifying screens of the harem itself.Less
This chapter examines the role of gender and age in the construction of domesticity in the Mughal Empire. It argues that the increasing number and invisibility of women in the imperial harem in Mughal India marked the changing claims by the sultan to a differentiating divinity. This chapter also suggests that the secreting of the women allowed Hindu and Muslim ritual practices to coexist so that the two cultures could be connected and that the mixing of cultures took place behind the mystifying screens of the harem itself.
