John Toye
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199251209
- eISBN:
- 9780191599293
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199251207.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
Toye focuses on issues relating to substantive justice as mediated through the international trade regime. He argues that the transition from the GATT to the WTO is leading to the continuation, ...
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Toye focuses on issues relating to substantive justice as mediated through the international trade regime. He argues that the transition from the GATT to the WTO is leading to the continuation, possibly even the worsening, of inequality amongst countries. Toye concludes that formal justice is at odds with substantive justice since the inequalities of political and economic power between developed and developing countries have not been compensated for in the enactment of supposedly improved trade procedural rules.Less
Toye focuses on issues relating to substantive justice as mediated through the international trade regime. He argues that the transition from the GATT to the WTO is leading to the continuation, possibly even the worsening, of inequality amongst countries. Toye concludes that formal justice is at odds with substantive justice since the inequalities of political and economic power between developed and developing countries have not been compensated for in the enactment of supposedly improved trade procedural rules.
Kenneth Dyson and Kevin Featherstone
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198296386
- eISBN:
- 9780191599125
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019829638X.003.0014
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Few issues have caused as much domestic turbulence for so long in recent decades as those associated with Britain's role in the European integration process. EMU challenged traditional concerns of ...
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Few issues have caused as much domestic turbulence for so long in recent decades as those associated with Britain's role in the European integration process. EMU challenged traditional concerns of British policy on Europe: nationhood, sovereignty, and gradualism. It also conflicted with core Thatcherite policy beliefs about the sensitivity of monetary policy to market conditions. EMU appeared on the agenda as the Conservative Government wrestled with the question of ERM entry, and a cleavage appeared between ‘Europhiles’ and ‘Eurosceptics’. Mrs Thatcher was intent on asserting a more strident leadership on ‘Europe’, whilst her Chancellor was acting as a policy entrepreneur. Her government was thus ill‐prepared strategically for the EMU negotiations. After the surprise of the Delors Committee outcome, the Whitehall machine established tight policy coordination. Given the political context, however, it remained vulnerable to a narrowness of vision.Less
Few issues have caused as much domestic turbulence for so long in recent decades as those associated with Britain's role in the European integration process. EMU challenged traditional concerns of British policy on Europe: nationhood, sovereignty, and gradualism. It also conflicted with core Thatcherite policy beliefs about the sensitivity of monetary policy to market conditions. EMU appeared on the agenda as the Conservative Government wrestled with the question of ERM entry, and a cleavage appeared between ‘Europhiles’ and ‘Eurosceptics’. Mrs Thatcher was intent on asserting a more strident leadership on ‘Europe’, whilst her Chancellor was acting as a policy entrepreneur. Her government was thus ill‐prepared strategically for the EMU negotiations. After the surprise of the Delors Committee outcome, the Whitehall machine established tight policy coordination. Given the political context, however, it remained vulnerable to a narrowness of vision.
Jessica F. Green
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691157580
- eISBN:
- 9781400848669
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691157580.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This chapter examines why states decided to delegate key monitoring tasks to private actors in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol. It first provides an overview of the ...
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This chapter examines why states decided to delegate key monitoring tasks to private actors in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol. It first provides an overview of the origins of the CDM before discussing the involvement of the Global Environment Facility, the World Bank, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the CDM. It also presents three reasons behind delegated authority in the CDM, and specifically why private actors were selected to serve as the “atmospheric police” of the CDM. First, the private sector had relatively long-standing experience in the intricacies of measuring carbon offsets. Second, powerful states agreed that this market mechanism should be part of the Protocol, and that a third-party verifier was needed to monitor the quality of offset projects. Finally, there was a focal institution, the CDM Executive Board, to screen and oversee agents.Less
This chapter examines why states decided to delegate key monitoring tasks to private actors in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol. It first provides an overview of the origins of the CDM before discussing the involvement of the Global Environment Facility, the World Bank, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the CDM. It also presents three reasons behind delegated authority in the CDM, and specifically why private actors were selected to serve as the “atmospheric police” of the CDM. First, the private sector had relatively long-standing experience in the intricacies of measuring carbon offsets. Second, powerful states agreed that this market mechanism should be part of the Protocol, and that a third-party verifier was needed to monitor the quality of offset projects. Finally, there was a focal institution, the CDM Executive Board, to screen and oversee agents.
Todd Tremlin
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195305340
- eISBN:
- 9780199784721
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195305345.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, Philosophy of Religion
This chapter examines some evolved mental mechanisms that play key roles in the representation of god concepts. The incorrigible operation of an Agency Detection Device (ADD) and a Theory of Mind ...
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This chapter examines some evolved mental mechanisms that play key roles in the representation of god concepts. The incorrigible operation of an Agency Detection Device (ADD) and a Theory of Mind Mechanism (ToMM) helps explain why people naturally entertain religious ideas. God concepts are parasitic on mental mechanisms designed for different though functionally related purposes. The study of these and other predispositions of thought also reveal what, from a cognitive perspective, “gods” really are — easily anthropomorphized thinking intentional agents. The real attributes of gods align with the mind’s intuitive knowledge bases and the natural inferences they produce rather than with the abstract, theological attributes taught in religious doctrine. At the same time, the counterintuitive properties of god concepts account for their widespread transmission.Less
This chapter examines some evolved mental mechanisms that play key roles in the representation of god concepts. The incorrigible operation of an Agency Detection Device (ADD) and a Theory of Mind Mechanism (ToMM) helps explain why people naturally entertain religious ideas. God concepts are parasitic on mental mechanisms designed for different though functionally related purposes. The study of these and other predispositions of thought also reveal what, from a cognitive perspective, “gods” really are — easily anthropomorphized thinking intentional agents. The real attributes of gods align with the mind’s intuitive knowledge bases and the natural inferences they produce rather than with the abstract, theological attributes taught in religious doctrine. At the same time, the counterintuitive properties of god concepts account for their widespread transmission.
Krey Matthias and Santen Heike
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0011
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
This chapter highlights some of the main reasons for uncertainty regarding the Clean Development Mechanism's (CDM) project performance, to assess the complaints brought forward, and to summarize ...
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This chapter highlights some of the main reasons for uncertainty regarding the Clean Development Mechanism's (CDM) project performance, to assess the complaints brought forward, and to summarize briefly the proposals for reform that have been made up till late 2008. It also discusses whether the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP) has lived up to the expectations of the private sector stakeholders in CDM projects and what still remains to be done. The first section describes the overarching principles of CDM rule-making and how it impacts on CDM project development. The second section focuses on the situation in which project developers as well as Certified Emission Reduction (CER) buyers find themselves when they need to predict if, when, and how many CERs a project will deliver in the future. The third section describes typical reasons for the uncertainty that surrounds the CDM potential of a proposed greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation project at an early stage of project development, e.g. at Project Identification Note Stage (PIN). The fourth section exemplifies the challenges of determining the CDM potential of a project that has been submitted for validation with a corresponding Project Design Document (PDD). The fifth section looks at reasons for the uncertainty surrounding the issuance of CERs after there has been CDM registration of a project. Finally, overviews on proposals for reform and the decisions made by the COP/MOP in December 2008 designed to improve CDM performance are provided.Less
This chapter highlights some of the main reasons for uncertainty regarding the Clean Development Mechanism's (CDM) project performance, to assess the complaints brought forward, and to summarize briefly the proposals for reform that have been made up till late 2008. It also discusses whether the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP) has lived up to the expectations of the private sector stakeholders in CDM projects and what still remains to be done. The first section describes the overarching principles of CDM rule-making and how it impacts on CDM project development. The second section focuses on the situation in which project developers as well as Certified Emission Reduction (CER) buyers find themselves when they need to predict if, when, and how many CERs a project will deliver in the future. The third section describes typical reasons for the uncertainty that surrounds the CDM potential of a proposed greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation project at an early stage of project development, e.g. at Project Identification Note Stage (PIN). The fourth section exemplifies the challenges of determining the CDM potential of a project that has been submitted for validation with a corresponding Project Design Document (PDD). The fifth section looks at reasons for the uncertainty surrounding the issuance of CERs after there has been CDM registration of a project. Finally, overviews on proposals for reform and the decisions made by the COP/MOP in December 2008 designed to improve CDM performance are provided.
Michaelowa Axel
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0012
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
The concept of the ‘additionality’ of the emission reduction achieved by a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project lies at the heart of the CDM rules. The essential idea underlying the concept of ...
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The concept of the ‘additionality’ of the emission reduction achieved by a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project lies at the heart of the CDM rules. The essential idea underlying the concept of additionality is that the emissions reductions of a CDM project would not have happened under ‘business-as-usual’. This chapter considers how the concept of additionality has evolved over time both in its theoretical definition and its actual implementation regarding registration of CDM projects. It starts with a discussion of the inability of the negotiators of the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords to agree on an operational definition of additionality. The unexpected effort of the CDM Executive Board to introduce principles of additionality testing and the development of the consolidated additionality tool are discussed in section 3. Recent developments that allow the use of benchmarks and default discount factors to take into account non-additional projects, instead of using the additionality tool, are assessed in section 4. Section 5 describes how projects have been reviewed and rejected over time, with the CDM Executive Board (EB) developing ‘fashions’ of rejecting certain project types without prior warning. The fate of cement blending and waste heat recovery projects is assessed in detail. Given this situation, several proposals for reform of additionality testing have been made, which are dealt with in section 6. Section 7 discusses what would happen if additionality testing was scrapped. Section 8 summarizes the lessons of five years of additionality determination of CDM projects.Less
The concept of the ‘additionality’ of the emission reduction achieved by a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project lies at the heart of the CDM rules. The essential idea underlying the concept of additionality is that the emissions reductions of a CDM project would not have happened under ‘business-as-usual’. This chapter considers how the concept of additionality has evolved over time both in its theoretical definition and its actual implementation regarding registration of CDM projects. It starts with a discussion of the inability of the negotiators of the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords to agree on an operational definition of additionality. The unexpected effort of the CDM Executive Board to introduce principles of additionality testing and the development of the consolidated additionality tool are discussed in section 3. Recent developments that allow the use of benchmarks and default discount factors to take into account non-additional projects, instead of using the additionality tool, are assessed in section 4. Section 5 describes how projects have been reviewed and rejected over time, with the CDM Executive Board (EB) developing ‘fashions’ of rejecting certain project types without prior warning. The fate of cement blending and waste heat recovery projects is assessed in detail. Given this situation, several proposals for reform of additionality testing have been made, which are dealt with in section 6. Section 7 discusses what would happen if additionality testing was scrapped. Section 8 summarizes the lessons of five years of additionality determination of CDM projects.
Voigi Christina
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0013
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
This chapter discusses the responsibility of the Executive Board (EB), a UN body set up under the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to govern the environmental integrity of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). ...
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This chapter discusses the responsibility of the Executive Board (EB), a UN body set up under the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to govern the environmental integrity of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). As there is increasing evidence that a high level of environmental integrity has not yet been achieved, the issue dealt with in the chapter is the possibility for judicial review of EB decisions, both within the international climate regime by a review panel (internal review) and separate from it (external review).Less
This chapter discusses the responsibility of the Executive Board (EB), a UN body set up under the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to govern the environmental integrity of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). As there is increasing evidence that a high level of environmental integrity has not yet been achieved, the issue dealt with in the chapter is the possibility for judicial review of EB decisions, both within the international climate regime by a review panel (internal review) and separate from it (external review).
Christiana Figueres and Charlotte Streck
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0026
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms ...
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Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms themselves, will survive in a post-2012 climate regime. This chapter examines how a post-2012 climate treaty could provide incentives for greater emission reductions in developing countries. It starts by summarizing the current frustrations with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reviewing incremental modifications that could be considered to strengthen the mechanism without requiring a decision of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol or changes to the Marrakech Accords. It then explores a potential post-2012 scenario that combines three possible financial mechanisms to promote large-scale mitigation in developing countries: the activity-based CDM as we know it, albeit improved; a second market mechanism which would seek to improve the long-term emission trends of developing countries; and a third, non-market-based financial mechanism which would follow a scheme of payment that is not commoditized and does not create international offsets.Less
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms themselves, will survive in a post-2012 climate regime. This chapter examines how a post-2012 climate treaty could provide incentives for greater emission reductions in developing countries. It starts by summarizing the current frustrations with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reviewing incremental modifications that could be considered to strengthen the mechanism without requiring a decision of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol or changes to the Marrakech Accords. It then explores a potential post-2012 scenario that combines three possible financial mechanisms to promote large-scale mitigation in developing countries: the activity-based CDM as we know it, albeit improved; a second market mechanism which would seek to improve the long-term emission trends of developing countries; and a third, non-market-based financial mechanism which would follow a scheme of payment that is not commoditized and does not create international offsets.
Jelmer Hoogzaad and Charlotte Streck
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0008
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
Although the term Joint Implementation itself is not mentioned anywhere in the Kyoto Protocol, Article 6 of the Protocol establishes the basis for what has become known as ‘Joint Implementation’ ...
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Although the term Joint Implementation itself is not mentioned anywhere in the Kyoto Protocol, Article 6 of the Protocol establishes the basis for what has become known as ‘Joint Implementation’ (JI). Jointly with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), JI belongs to the project-based flexible mechanisms defined by the Kyoto Protocol. JI involves the transfer of Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) between Annex I parties that have been generated by projects developed by Parties to the Protocol or authorized legal entities. This chapter first describes the current state of play for JI, explaining the procedural requirements for a successful participation in JI, including providing insights into the so-called Track 1 JI, a modality of the JI mechanism that is often overlooked due to its national rather than global character. Next, the claim that that JI has to accept a life as a wallflower compared to the more glamorous CDM is examined and argued to be untrue. Finally, the post-2012 future of JI is discussed, elaborating upon options for JI reform as well as proposals to introduce new elements to expand the mechanisms' sectoral coverage.Less
Although the term Joint Implementation itself is not mentioned anywhere in the Kyoto Protocol, Article 6 of the Protocol establishes the basis for what has become known as ‘Joint Implementation’ (JI). Jointly with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), JI belongs to the project-based flexible mechanisms defined by the Kyoto Protocol. JI involves the transfer of Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) between Annex I parties that have been generated by projects developed by Parties to the Protocol or authorized legal entities. This chapter first describes the current state of play for JI, explaining the procedural requirements for a successful participation in JI, including providing insights into the so-called Track 1 JI, a modality of the JI mechanism that is often overlooked due to its national rather than global character. Next, the claim that that JI has to accept a life as a wallflower compared to the more glamorous CDM is examined and argued to be untrue. Finally, the post-2012 future of JI is discussed, elaborating upon options for JI reform as well as proposals to introduce new elements to expand the mechanisms' sectoral coverage.
Hobley Anthony and Roberts Carly
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0009
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
This chapter builds on the introduction to Joint Implementation (JI) in Chapter 8 by re-examining the key differences between JI and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), framed more from the point ...
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This chapter builds on the introduction to Joint Implementation (JI) in Chapter 8 by re-examining the key differences between JI and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), framed more from the point of view of the prospective investor who is perhaps more used to CDM. It addresses some of the common myths and misconceptions which often arise due to such existing experience of the CDM. The chapter will draw out the key differences which give rise to the distinct risk profile of JI. This will then be used to offer practical advice on the key issues which need to be addressed both in due diligence and contractual drafting for JI projects, as distinct from CDM projects. The chapter shows that there are some particular aspects of the JI mechanism's regulatory design which, relative to the regulatory design of the CDM mechanism, create higher risks for investors and buyers. However, JI is a valuable tool and a ‘learning by doing’ exercise for similar or new mechanisms in the post-2012 world.Less
This chapter builds on the introduction to Joint Implementation (JI) in Chapter 8 by re-examining the key differences between JI and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), framed more from the point of view of the prospective investor who is perhaps more used to CDM. It addresses some of the common myths and misconceptions which often arise due to such existing experience of the CDM. The chapter will draw out the key differences which give rise to the distinct risk profile of JI. This will then be used to offer practical advice on the key issues which need to be addressed both in due diligence and contractual drafting for JI projects, as distinct from CDM projects. The chapter shows that there are some particular aspects of the JI mechanism's regulatory design which, relative to the regulatory design of the CDM mechanism, create higher risks for investors and buyers. However, JI is a valuable tool and a ‘learning by doing’ exercise for similar or new mechanisms in the post-2012 world.
Ilias Bantekas
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199578986
- eISBN:
- 9780191595202
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199578986.003.0003
- Subject:
- Law, Human Rights and Immigration, Public International Law
This chapter examines all the elements that bring about environmental insecurity, such as deforestation and land degradation, the role of population densities, and pollution of the natural ...
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This chapter examines all the elements that bring about environmental insecurity, such as deforestation and land degradation, the role of population densities, and pollution of the natural environment that leads to food and resource scarcity. Although these factors are not endemic to Africa, they have been particularly exacerbated in that continent. The chapter addresses how the Security Council has dealt with the potential for conflict stemming from Africa's increasing resource scarcity and natural disasters, particularly as a result of desertification and deforestation. It examines the Darfur crisis as a case study of an environmental conflict, as well as the threats to security and resource scarcity stemming from Africa's illegal exploitation of mineral resources. Given the relevance of climate change to international affairs and the security concerns raised as a result, the chapter concludes with an assessment of how African nations have dealt with climate change and what use they have made of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in order to rid themselves of carbon-based industries, although Africa is by far the least carbon-polluting continent on the planet.Less
This chapter examines all the elements that bring about environmental insecurity, such as deforestation and land degradation, the role of population densities, and pollution of the natural environment that leads to food and resource scarcity. Although these factors are not endemic to Africa, they have been particularly exacerbated in that continent. The chapter addresses how the Security Council has dealt with the potential for conflict stemming from Africa's increasing resource scarcity and natural disasters, particularly as a result of desertification and deforestation. It examines the Darfur crisis as a case study of an environmental conflict, as well as the threats to security and resource scarcity stemming from Africa's illegal exploitation of mineral resources. Given the relevance of climate change to international affairs and the security concerns raised as a result, the chapter concludes with an assessment of how African nations have dealt with climate change and what use they have made of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in order to rid themselves of carbon-based industries, although Africa is by far the least carbon-polluting continent on the planet.
Włodzimierz Brus and Kazimierz Laski
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198283997
- eISBN:
- 9780191596032
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198283997.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic Systems
The first practical application of the idea of market socialism (but not necessarily along Lange's model) was made in early 1950s in Yugoslavia after the break with the Soviet Union, and in ...
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The first practical application of the idea of market socialism (but not necessarily along Lange's model) was made in early 1950s in Yugoslavia after the break with the Soviet Union, and in conjunction with countrywide system of ‘workers’ self‐management’. As for the Soviet‐bloc countries, the dissatisfaction with the command system and a tendency to introduce some elements of market mechanism manifested itself openly in (failed) in Poland, as well as in several other countries starting from mid‐1950s. However, by the beginning of the 1980s, out of all these attempts, only the Hungarian ‘New Economic Mechanism’ survived, albeit not in the initial form of combining central planning with elements of market mechanism. The Hungarian NEM improved somewhat the economic performance, but in fundamentals, it also failed, becoming reduced to a shift from direct bureaucratic control to indirect control from the centre.Less
The first practical application of the idea of market socialism (but not necessarily along Lange's model) was made in early 1950s in Yugoslavia after the break with the Soviet Union, and in conjunction with countrywide system of ‘workers’ self‐management’. As for the Soviet‐bloc countries, the dissatisfaction with the command system and a tendency to introduce some elements of market mechanism manifested itself openly in (failed) in Poland, as well as in several other countries starting from mid‐1950s. However, by the beginning of the 1980s, out of all these attempts, only the Hungarian ‘New Economic Mechanism’ survived, albeit not in the initial form of combining central planning with elements of market mechanism. The Hungarian NEM improved somewhat the economic performance, but in fundamentals, it also failed, becoming reduced to a shift from direct bureaucratic control to indirect control from the centre.
Jorge Braga De Macedo
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198296867
- eISBN:
- 9780191685286
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198296867.003.0011
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental, Macro- and Monetary Economics
The national economy of Portugal was exposed to financial and political crises that proved to be recurrent, and an inflationary environment when Portugal became a member of the European Community in ...
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The national economy of Portugal was exposed to financial and political crises that proved to be recurrent, and an inflationary environment when Portugal became a member of the European Community in 1985. When Cavaco Silva became prime minister, he was able to secure a huge part of parliament in the general elections that occurred in 1987 and 1991. A multi-annual fiscal adjustment strategy (MAFAS) was employed since his government implemented certain reforms. While this measure could be associated with the ECU, the financial and political stability brought on by such measures continued through the efforts of the socialist party which articulated a commitment towards the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The escudo exchange rates and interest rates reflected the sustained convergence that was expected through the 1992 Treaty on European Union. This chapter looks into how multilateral measures for surveillance imposed by the ‘code of conduct’ of the Exchange Rate Mechanism of the European Monetary System (ERM) improved national credibility.Less
The national economy of Portugal was exposed to financial and political crises that proved to be recurrent, and an inflationary environment when Portugal became a member of the European Community in 1985. When Cavaco Silva became prime minister, he was able to secure a huge part of parliament in the general elections that occurred in 1987 and 1991. A multi-annual fiscal adjustment strategy (MAFAS) was employed since his government implemented certain reforms. While this measure could be associated with the ECU, the financial and political stability brought on by such measures continued through the efforts of the socialist party which articulated a commitment towards the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The escudo exchange rates and interest rates reflected the sustained convergence that was expected through the 1992 Treaty on European Union. This chapter looks into how multilateral measures for surveillance imposed by the ‘code of conduct’ of the Exchange Rate Mechanism of the European Monetary System (ERM) improved national credibility.
Alex Tissandier
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781474417747
- eISBN:
- 9781474449748
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474417747.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
This chapter looks in detail at the three main engagements with Leibniz in the main text of Deleuze’s Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. The first concerns the role of real definitions and proofs ...
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This chapter looks in detail at the three main engagements with Leibniz in the main text of Deleuze’s Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. The first concerns the role of real definitions and proofs of possibility in arguments for the existence of God. The second concerns the theory of adequation in a logic of ideas. The third concerns mechanism, force and essence in a theory of bodies. The chapter argues that these engagements all share the same form. First, Deleuze locates a similarity between Leibniz and Spinoza in their criticism of a particular Cartesian doctrine. Second, he grounds this criticism in a shared concern for the lack of a sufficient reason operating in Descartes’s philosophy. Third, he nominates expression as the concept best suited to address this lack and fulfil the requirements of sufficient reason. Finally, he shows that the way expression functions in Spinoza’s philosophy is each time superior to Leibniz’s own use of the concept. Despite the priority given to Spinoza in this text, it nevertheless contains our first introduction to various key Leibnizian concepts which will become increasingly important in Deleuze’s later philosophy.Less
This chapter looks in detail at the three main engagements with Leibniz in the main text of Deleuze’s Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. The first concerns the role of real definitions and proofs of possibility in arguments for the existence of God. The second concerns the theory of adequation in a logic of ideas. The third concerns mechanism, force and essence in a theory of bodies. The chapter argues that these engagements all share the same form. First, Deleuze locates a similarity between Leibniz and Spinoza in their criticism of a particular Cartesian doctrine. Second, he grounds this criticism in a shared concern for the lack of a sufficient reason operating in Descartes’s philosophy. Third, he nominates expression as the concept best suited to address this lack and fulfil the requirements of sufficient reason. Finally, he shows that the way expression functions in Spinoza’s philosophy is each time superior to Leibniz’s own use of the concept. Despite the priority given to Spinoza in this text, it nevertheless contains our first introduction to various key Leibnizian concepts which will become increasingly important in Deleuze’s later philosophy.
Mathias Kende
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- April 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780198817611
- eISBN:
- 9780191859137
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198817611.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
This book is the first academic monograph to provide a critical analysis of the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM). In order to do so, it first looks at the TPRM’s historical development into ...
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This book is the first academic monograph to provide a critical analysis of the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM). In order to do so, it first looks at the TPRM’s historical development into the WTO’s mechanism for peer review. In this context, the book provides a historical analysis of the concept of peer review and distils a peer review mechanism’s theoretical core elements in terms of objectives, structure and participants. It then applies these elements to the five defining institutional phases of the TPRM (Article X of the GATT (1947), the Tokyo Round negotiations resulting in the Understanding Regarding Notification, Consultation, Dispute Settlement and Surveillance (1979), the report ‘Trade Policies for a Better Future: Proposals for Action’ (1985), the Functioning of the GATT System (FOGS) negotiations (1986), and the provisional adaption of the TPRM during the Montreal mid-term review of the Uruguay Round (December 1988)). The book then measures to which degree the TPRM has been performing well as the WTO’s mechanism for peer review. In order to do so, it follows the first five institutionally mandated appraisals of the TPRM (1999, 2005, 2008, 2011, and 2013). The book concludes that the TPRM has functioned well but that its performance could and should be improved in order to remain politically relevant. In order to do so, it provides some recommendations which are tested against the background of the last (sixth) appraisal which precede the upcoming Eleventh WTO Ministerial Conference in Buenos Aires (December 2017).Less
This book is the first academic monograph to provide a critical analysis of the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM). In order to do so, it first looks at the TPRM’s historical development into the WTO’s mechanism for peer review. In this context, the book provides a historical analysis of the concept of peer review and distils a peer review mechanism’s theoretical core elements in terms of objectives, structure and participants. It then applies these elements to the five defining institutional phases of the TPRM (Article X of the GATT (1947), the Tokyo Round negotiations resulting in the Understanding Regarding Notification, Consultation, Dispute Settlement and Surveillance (1979), the report ‘Trade Policies for a Better Future: Proposals for Action’ (1985), the Functioning of the GATT System (FOGS) negotiations (1986), and the provisional adaption of the TPRM during the Montreal mid-term review of the Uruguay Round (December 1988)). The book then measures to which degree the TPRM has been performing well as the WTO’s mechanism for peer review. In order to do so, it follows the first five institutionally mandated appraisals of the TPRM (1999, 2005, 2008, 2011, and 2013). The book concludes that the TPRM has functioned well but that its performance could and should be improved in order to remain politically relevant. In order to do so, it provides some recommendations which are tested against the background of the last (sixth) appraisal which precede the upcoming Eleventh WTO Ministerial Conference in Buenos Aires (December 2017).
Fui S. Tsikata, Abeeku Brew-Hammond, and Y. B. Osafo
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199532698
- eISBN:
- 9780191701054
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199532698.003.0008
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law
Africa's development is weighed down by the fact that energy consumption and access to modern energy services are the lowest in the world today. A relatively small number of African countries are ...
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Africa's development is weighed down by the fact that energy consumption and access to modern energy services are the lowest in the world today. A relatively small number of African countries are dependent on their petroleum and coal resources for economic development and today these countries are under pressure to implement measures to reduce emissions from activities which involve the production and use of fossil fuels. At the international level, fifty-two African countries have ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC put forward several ‘flexibility mechanisms’ including the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). This chapter explores the potential of the CDM as an investment vehicle for improving the delivery of energy services and increasing access to clean energy in Africa, in a manner which does not contribute inordinately to increases in greenhouse gas emissions. It looks at the main elements dominating policy discussion in Africa's energy sector, some aspects of which have a potential to move the continent away from the carbon economy, while others constrain its capacity to do so.Less
Africa's development is weighed down by the fact that energy consumption and access to modern energy services are the lowest in the world today. A relatively small number of African countries are dependent on their petroleum and coal resources for economic development and today these countries are under pressure to implement measures to reduce emissions from activities which involve the production and use of fossil fuels. At the international level, fifty-two African countries have ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC put forward several ‘flexibility mechanisms’ including the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). This chapter explores the potential of the CDM as an investment vehicle for improving the delivery of energy services and increasing access to clean energy in Africa, in a manner which does not contribute inordinately to increases in greenhouse gas emissions. It looks at the main elements dominating policy discussion in Africa's energy sector, some aspects of which have a potential to move the continent away from the carbon economy, while others constrain its capacity to do so.
Scott Valentine
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780199862726
- eISBN:
- 9780197563236
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780199862726.003.0008
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Environmental Sustainability
Analyzing electricity generation sector developments in China is akin to observing a person emerging from a supermarket with a shopping cart half-full with dietary ...
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Analyzing electricity generation sector developments in China is akin to observing a person emerging from a supermarket with a shopping cart half-full with dietary products and half-full with chocolates and other sweets and trying to determine whether or not the person is going on a diet. On the one hand, in 2009 China surpassed the United States as the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG). Not only is China the world’s largest consumer (and producer) of coal; by 2030, coal consumption in China is expected to increase 41% from 2010 levels. On the other hand, China boasts a burgeoning wind power market. In 2012, nearly one of every three MW of installed wind power capacity was installed in China. As of December 2012, China enjoys top global spot in aggregate installed wind power capacity with 75,324 MW installed, 20% of global capacity. China is also the fastest growing nuclear power market in the world with 40,000 MW of installed nuclear power capacity expected by 2020. Although Deng Xiaoping passed away in 1997, his famous axiom “It doesn’t matter if a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice” (In Mandarin 不管白猫黑猫, 会捉老鼠就是好猫), which was invoked to describe the underlying premise behind political and market reform embraced by the Communist Party of China (CPC), still reigns true in China today. Accordingly, one cannot help but wonder what type of mice China’s laudable commitment to wind power is intended to catch. Is this a strategic initiative that will lead to China establishing new benchmarks for wind power leadership, or is it simply a small part of an all-out effort on the part of the CPC to keep up with burgeoning demand for energy in whatever way that works? In this chapter, sociopolitical economic influences on wind power development will be examined with an intention to try to explain China’s remarkable recent achievements in wind power. The reader will find that wind power policy in China is not just about energy economics; rather, it is a tale of pragmatic planning, strategic foresight, and gradualist politics.
Less
Analyzing electricity generation sector developments in China is akin to observing a person emerging from a supermarket with a shopping cart half-full with dietary products and half-full with chocolates and other sweets and trying to determine whether or not the person is going on a diet. On the one hand, in 2009 China surpassed the United States as the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG). Not only is China the world’s largest consumer (and producer) of coal; by 2030, coal consumption in China is expected to increase 41% from 2010 levels. On the other hand, China boasts a burgeoning wind power market. In 2012, nearly one of every three MW of installed wind power capacity was installed in China. As of December 2012, China enjoys top global spot in aggregate installed wind power capacity with 75,324 MW installed, 20% of global capacity. China is also the fastest growing nuclear power market in the world with 40,000 MW of installed nuclear power capacity expected by 2020. Although Deng Xiaoping passed away in 1997, his famous axiom “It doesn’t matter if a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice” (In Mandarin 不管白猫黑猫, 会捉老鼠就是好猫), which was invoked to describe the underlying premise behind political and market reform embraced by the Communist Party of China (CPC), still reigns true in China today. Accordingly, one cannot help but wonder what type of mice China’s laudable commitment to wind power is intended to catch. Is this a strategic initiative that will lead to China establishing new benchmarks for wind power leadership, or is it simply a small part of an all-out effort on the part of the CPC to keep up with burgeoning demand for energy in whatever way that works? In this chapter, sociopolitical economic influences on wind power development will be examined with an intention to try to explain China’s remarkable recent achievements in wind power. The reader will find that wind power policy in China is not just about energy economics; rather, it is a tale of pragmatic planning, strategic foresight, and gradualist politics.
Lavanya Rajamani
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199532698
- eISBN:
- 9780191701054
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199532698.003.0018
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law
Development, and within its frame poverty eradication, energy security, and provision of universal access to energy, is a central, enduring, and justifiably obsessive preoccupation of the Indian ...
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Development, and within its frame poverty eradication, energy security, and provision of universal access to energy, is a central, enduring, and justifiably obsessive preoccupation of the Indian government. India's developmental mission, as framed, however, may well leave large carbon footprints, and ultimately weaken its ability to develop. Its energy use, now at a low per capita emissions rate of 1.2 tonnes annually, will change dramatically in the near future. If India's current growth rate continues, energy demands will more than double by 2020. This chapter explores India's way of tackling the challenges of climate change, development, and energy. In particular, it explores India's international stance on climate change, its influence on domestic policies and strategies, and the national legal architecture created to operationalise the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism, focusing on the gaps within this architecture, in particular with respect to its ability to assist India in achieving sustainable development.Less
Development, and within its frame poverty eradication, energy security, and provision of universal access to energy, is a central, enduring, and justifiably obsessive preoccupation of the Indian government. India's developmental mission, as framed, however, may well leave large carbon footprints, and ultimately weaken its ability to develop. Its energy use, now at a low per capita emissions rate of 1.2 tonnes annually, will change dramatically in the near future. If India's current growth rate continues, energy demands will more than double by 2020. This chapter explores India's way of tackling the challenges of climate change, development, and energy. In particular, it explores India's international stance on climate change, its influence on domestic policies and strategies, and the national legal architecture created to operationalise the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism, focusing on the gaps within this architecture, in particular with respect to its ability to assist India in achieving sustainable development.
José Juan González
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199532698
- eISBN:
- 9780191701054
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199532698.003.0019
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law
This chapter analyses Mexico's energy sector from the following perspectives: the importance that the oil industry has had in the Mexican economy since it was nationalised in 1938, taking into ...
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This chapter analyses Mexico's energy sector from the following perspectives: the importance that the oil industry has had in the Mexican economy since it was nationalised in 1938, taking into account the role of this governmental monopoly as the main source of public income and its influence on social, economic, and technological development; the role of legislation in promoting or preventing the use of alternative energy sources to reduce the dependence on such industry and to deal with environmental degradation; and the role of the Clean Development Mechanism in promoting renewable energy. The chapter includes a revision of the compatibility between the objectives established by Mexican Energy Plans and Programs and the constitutional and legal provisions regarding promotion of renewable energy sources.Less
This chapter analyses Mexico's energy sector from the following perspectives: the importance that the oil industry has had in the Mexican economy since it was nationalised in 1938, taking into account the role of this governmental monopoly as the main source of public income and its influence on social, economic, and technological development; the role of legislation in promoting or preventing the use of alternative energy sources to reduce the dependence on such industry and to deal with environmental degradation; and the role of the Clean Development Mechanism in promoting renewable energy. The chapter includes a revision of the compatibility between the objectives established by Mexican Energy Plans and Programs and the constitutional and legal provisions regarding promotion of renewable energy sources.
Matthew Eagleton-Pierce
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199662647
- eISBN:
- 9780191748424
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199662647.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Political Economy
This second case study examines a labour-intensive struggle by the G33 WTO coalition to conceptualise and codify new ideas related to special and differentiated treatment (SDT) in agricultural trade. ...
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This second case study examines a labour-intensive struggle by the G33 WTO coalition to conceptualise and codify new ideas related to special and differentiated treatment (SDT) in agricultural trade. There are three sections. First, in an economic and legal analysis, it explains why many Southern countries have argued that existing notions of food security in the WTO are inadequate. Second, it examines how the G33 mobilised the symbolic and institutional power resources necessary to renew the classification struggle over defensive policy ideas. This resulted in the creation of two new policy instruments: Special Products (SPs) and the Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM). The third section analyses the most recent phase of negotiations, including how the G33’s original critique on development has been eroded as the talks have shifted into bargaining over modalities. Attention is also given to the coercive power of the United States and disputes over South–South trade.Less
This second case study examines a labour-intensive struggle by the G33 WTO coalition to conceptualise and codify new ideas related to special and differentiated treatment (SDT) in agricultural trade. There are three sections. First, in an economic and legal analysis, it explains why many Southern countries have argued that existing notions of food security in the WTO are inadequate. Second, it examines how the G33 mobilised the symbolic and institutional power resources necessary to renew the classification struggle over defensive policy ideas. This resulted in the creation of two new policy instruments: Special Products (SPs) and the Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM). The third section analyses the most recent phase of negotiations, including how the G33’s original critique on development has been eroded as the talks have shifted into bargaining over modalities. Attention is also given to the coercive power of the United States and disputes over South–South trade.
