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This chapter analyses the emergence of two distinct agrarian systems in major rice-producing provinces in Luzon Island, Philippines. These are the large hacienda system characterized by the management hierarchy for supervising a large number of tenants in Inner Central Luzon, and the relatively small-scale landlordism wherein landlords and tenants were tied by a patron-client bond. These agrarian systems evolved despite basic similarities in economic conditions such as ecological conditions for rice production, market access, colonial history, and post-independent government policies such as land reform.

This chapter first describes the MacArthur group's fortress in Corregidor Island. On December 24, 1941, the group spent Christmas Eve in the Malinta Tunnel, which was to house MacArthur's General Headquarters. On December 29, at 11:45 a.m., the air raid alarm sounded on Corregidor. The Japanese were finally attacking the island, with eighteen midsized bombers and ten dive-bombers: they knew that MacArthur had fled there from Manila. The remainder of the chapter details the Japanese military landing on Luzon; U.S. and Filipino force's tactical withdrawal to the Bataan Peninsula; the fall of Manila and the first Bataan operation; and the hardships of MacArthur's troops.

This essay depicts the beginning of the Spanish Empire in the Asia-Pacific in the mid-sixteenth century (Ming dynasty), when Spaniard Miguel de Legazpi from Mexico in the Americas colonized the Philippines and established Manila as an extension of Spain’s American colony of New Spain. Sustaining this trans-Pacific relationship for 250 year was the Manila Galleon Trade between Acapulco, Mexico and Manila, trading American silver for Chinese silk, porcelain and other fine goods. The large community (twenty to thirty thousand) of Hokkien-speaking migrants from South Fujian (Minnan) which quickly arose and confined to ethnic neighbourhood outside the Manila city wall, became indispensable to the galleon trade by transporting from China all the luxury goods for the galleons, while resident artisans and labourers provided all the everyday consumer items, food, and services to the small Spanish population in Manila city. This first American “Chinatown” was the first large and permanent overseas Chinese community of Southeast Asia/Nanyang, which launched the worldwide Chinese diasporic movement that continues to this day, stretching all over the Americas, Europe and Africa.

This chapter examines the evidence that can shed light on the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on the Philippines and allow comparisons between population trends in the islands with other parts of the Southeast Asian archipelago. Focusing on demographic trends for each major island and region in Luzon and the Visayas, the chapter shows that Spanish conquest and early colonial rule in the Philippines resulted in significant population decline that was more pervasive and prolonged than generally assumed, but varied regionally. The evidence includes early Spanish colonial sources such as letters and memorials written by the first explorers, conquistadors, and priests; civil records like fiscal accounts and censuses; ecclesiastical records; and corroborative evidence derived from records of native traditions and from archaeology. The chapter also discusses some of the problems associated with the use of early Spanish colonial sources for demographic analysis and the role of racial mixing in population losses. Finally, it considers a regional approach for evaluating the early demographic history of the Spanish Philippines.

This chapter examines the decline of populations in southwest Luzon during Spanish times. The history of southwest Luzon was closely intertwined with that of Manila. The friar estates that developed in the west of the region became major suppliers of provisions for the city and helped shape its economic and social structure. Spanish contacts with southwest Luzon began in 1570, when Juan de Salcedo and his exploratory expedition from Panay arrived on the island of Ilin, plundered the town of Mamburao in Mindoro, and destroyed some settlements on the island of Lubang. This chapter first provides an overview of southwest Luzon's geography, population, and socioeconomic profile in 1570 before discussing the development of friar estates in the region. It then assesses the impact of shipbuilding, polos, fugitivism, missions, and Moro raids on the demography of the region. It also analyzes demographic trends in southwest Luzon, with particular emphasis on factors that contributed to population decline, including epidemics and migration.

This chapter examines the impact of Spanish colonial rule on the population of interior Luzon, with particular emphasis on groups living within the southern and central Cordillera. It begins with a brief review of the incidence and timing of Spanish contacts in the southern and central Cordillera, including the regions of Ituy and Paniqui, Italon and Abaca, and Igorot territory. It then considers the demographic history of the Igorot in Benguet, Kankanai and Bontoc, and Ifugao. It also discusses Dominican missionary efforts in northern Cordillera, along with demographic trends in the entire Cordillera region. It cites population estimates for interior Luzon for the period 1570–1800 and suggests that the region experienced an overall population decline of approximately 36 percent in 1570.