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Diplomat

Derek Drinkwater

in Sir Harold Nicolson and International Relations: The Practitioner as Theorist

Sir Harold Nicolson’s international thought, more specifically, his thinking on international order, diplomacy, a united Europe, world government, and global peace, was shaped by his upbringing in a ... More

Sir Harold Nicolson’s international thought, more specifically, his thinking on international order, diplomacy, a united Europe, world government, and global peace, was shaped by his upbringing in a diplomatic household, an Oxford classical education, and two decades as a diplomat in Europe and Asia Minor. Especially significant were his Foreign Office service in London during the First World War and his involvement in peacemaking at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, which culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Nicolson also made important contributions at the Lausanne Conference (1922–23), en poste in Germany between 1927 and 1929, and as an anti-appeasement MP prior to the Second World War. His fifty-year career, from the time of the Balkan Wars to Suez, represented an attempt to resolve the question of how best to secure international stability: through power politics, idealism, or an amalgam of realist and idealist approaches.Less

The Refugees: ROOT CAUSES OF THE GREEK REFUGEE PROBLEM

Elisabeth Kontogiorgi

in Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Rural Settlement of Refugees 1922-1930

This chapter begins with a discussion of the root cause of the Greek refugee problem. It then discusses the persecutions of Greeks in Eastern Thrace and Asia Minor; resettlement of Greek refugees in ... More

This chapter begins with a discussion of the root cause of the Greek refugee problem. It then discusses the persecutions of Greeks in Eastern Thrace and Asia Minor; resettlement of Greek refugees in Macedonia, 1913-1915; the Asia Minor catastrophe; displacement of Ottoman Greek citizens from their ancestral lands; and the Convention of Lausanne on 30 January 1923.Less

World

Alister Chapman

in Godly Ambition: John Stott and the Evangelical Movement

John Stott became one of the leading figures of the global evangelical movement. This chapter explains his growing prominence. It looks at his leadership in the evangelical Lausanne movement, which ... More

John Stott became one of the leading figures of the global evangelical movement. This chapter explains his growing prominence. It looks at his leadership in the evangelical Lausanne movement, which aimed to bring together evangelicals to further the spread of the gospel worldwide and served as an evangelical counterpart to the World Council of Churches. The obstacles to evangelical unity are discussed. The chapter also examines the foundations Stott set up to support leaders in churches in the non-Western world.Less

Settling Accounts: Circassians, Albanians, and the Founding of the Turkish Republic

Ryan Gingeras

in Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1912-1923

This chapter discusses state policies towards Albanians and North Caucasians during the first years of the Turkish Republic. The war decimated the population of the South Marmara and dramatically ... More

This chapter discusses state policies towards Albanians and North Caucasians during the first years of the Turkish Republic. The war decimated the population of the South Marmara and dramatically transformed its demographic makeup. The remaining Armenian and Greek populations of the region had either fled their homes by 1922 or were forcibly deported during the ‘Great Exchange’ of 1923. Both Circassians and Albanians shared similar fates in the war's aftermath. Thousands from of Circassians from the South Marmara fled to Greece, while thousands more were internally exiled to eastern Anatolia. Correspondingly, the republican government in Ankara gathered up thousands of Albanians and scattering them to the eastern portions of Anatolia. While the Turkish government was largely successful in eliminating the influence of the Circassian diaspora in the South Marmara, the flow and settlement of Albanian migrants proved unmanageable for the next twenty years.Less

Common Creativities

Kaira M. Cabañas

in Learning from Madness: Brazilian Modernism and Global Contemporary Art

The understanding of a shared source of creativity among the sane and insane came to the fore with the exhibition and collection of patients’ work in both France and Brazil in the 1940s. The visual ... More

The understanding of a shared source of creativity among the sane and insane came to the fore with the exhibition and collection of patients’ work in both France and Brazil in the 1940s. The visual evidence of a common creativity was often underwritten by discussions of artistic quality and how the patients’ work looked “futurist” or “surrealist.” This chapter turns to 9 Artistas de Engenho de Dentro do Rio de Janeiro, an exhibition of the creative work of nine of Dr. Nise da Silveira’s patients. The exhibition opened at the Museum of Modern Art São Paulo in 1949, one year after the museum’s founding. The chapter examines how the patients’ work became key to the discourse of modernist abstraction and its institutionalization in Brazil, just as it was regularly exhibited in the very spaces of Brazil’s first modern museums. Such circumstances differ notably from French artist Jean Dubuffet’s contemporaneous theorization of art brut, which is also addressed in this chapter.Less

2. 2. From Berlin to Lausanne: The End of Empire and the Demarcation of National Communities, 1878–1923

Mark Biondich

in The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878

This chapter assesses patterns of Balkan state- and nation-building from the Congress of Berlin (1878) to the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), before turning to the contested zones of the region and their ... More

This chapter assesses patterns of Balkan state- and nation-building from the Congress of Berlin (1878) to the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), before turning to the contested zones of the region and their attendant ‘Questions’: the Macedonian, Albanian, and South Slav. Political violence is discussed in terms of its contribution to the construction of homogeneous and modern nation-states, whose elites were driven increasingly by an ideology of integral nationalism. Several minor conflicts are referenced, but the main focus is on Macedonia, the Balkan Wars (1912–13) and Greek–Turkish War (1920–2), the end of empire, and displacement of peoples.Less

Ethnic Violence and the Entente, 1915–1923

Donald Bloxham

in The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians

This chapter examines the way that the Entente powers related to the Armenian question in the key period from the beginning of the genocide through to the conclusion of the Lausanne peace conference. ... More

This chapter examines the way that the Entente powers related to the Armenian question in the key period from the beginning of the genocide through to the conclusion of the Lausanne peace conference. The magnitude of the change in the Ottoman empire in these years was mirrored by quantum shifts in the international situation. Initially reluctant to draw attention to the plight of the Armenians lest it alienate the large Indian Muslim community, Britain suddenly began to highlight the atrocities as in autumn 1915 the campaign intensified to influence the United States' entry into the First World War. Russia's protests against the ongoing slaughter were angled at keeping its own Armenian population happy, while at the same time Petersburg was planning how to minimize the Armenian national presence in the eastern Anatolian territory which Russia was set to inherit upon a successful conclusion of the war.Less

Venizelos' Diplomacy, 1910–23: From Balkan Alliance to Greek-Turkish Settlement

Michael Llewellyn Smith

in Eleftherios Venizelos: The Trials of Statesmanship

This chapter describes Venizelos' diplomacy and foreign policy, and assess his achievement in the crucial phase of his career which stretched from his assumption of office in Greece in 1910 to the ... More

This chapter describes Venizelos' diplomacy and foreign policy, and assess his achievement in the crucial phase of his career which stretched from his assumption of office in Greece in 1910 to the turning point in Greek foreign policy marked by the Treaty of Lausanne. It argues that, though briefly attracted after the Young Turk revolution by the idea of co-existence of the Greek and other Christian minorities with Muslims, in a modernised, multinational Ottoman Empire, he soon developed a foreign policy based on the nationalist premises of the Great Idea. He pursued this by means of internal reform and alliances with the liberal Western powers, until circumstances destroyed it in fire and bloodshed in 1922. This foreign policy was consistent with Venizelos' vision of a modernised, European Greece. The dominant influence of the Great Powers in the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkans, though it sometimes entailed humiliation for Greece, justified Venizelos' willing dependence on them.Less

The First Crisis of the Rimlands

Levene Mark

in Devastation: Volume I: The European Rimlands 1912-1938

This chapter considers the immediate 1918-22 impact of imperial Ottoman Austrian and Russian collapse -as well as German defeat in the rimlands' arena and the reformulation of polities in this ... More

This chapter considers the immediate 1918-22 impact of imperial Ottoman Austrian and Russian collapse -as well as German defeat in the rimlands' arena and the reformulation of polities in this shatter-zone. It especially considers what this meant for populations who found themselves within these polities to be not part of a national majority but unwanted or unloved 'minorities'. The Western Allies attempted to manage this new situation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Their efforts, however, failed to prevent genocidal events taking place beyond their control. Soviet Russia's military destruction of recalcitrant communities such as the Don Cossacks and in the Tambov region, proved particularly important indicators for the future. However, the Kemalist extirpation of Greek aspirations in Asia Minor also implicated the Western Allies in a major exchange of populations - written into the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne - and which contradicted the Allies' earlier minorities' protection efforts.Less

Conferences and their (Dis)contents, 1933–1934

Patricia Clavin

in Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920-1946

The World Economic Conference convened by the League 1933 lies at the heart of international efforts to combat the depression. It was called by the British and French governments, acting in concert ... More

The World Economic Conference convened by the League 1933 lies at the heart of international efforts to combat the depression. It was called by the British and French governments, acting in concert with the United States, to combat the crunching impact of the financial crises of 1931, and to further negotiations on international war debts and the reparations settlement reached at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. The League played a crucial, yet hidden, role in facilitating the extensive preparatory meetings for the conference. The secretariat's ground work clarified national positions but also revealed that states' priorities differed so markedly there was no obvious policy territory on which agreement could be built before the main event. It shows how the secretariat promoted the temporary stabilization agreement that culminated in FDR's infamous ‘bombshell message’, and proposals for a tariff truce and negotiations premised on the anticipated US Reciprocal Tariff Agreement Act.Less

The Right to Expel as an International Norm: 1900–1945

Howard Adelman and Elazar Barkan

in No Return, No Refuge: Rites and Rights in Minority Repatriation

This chapter traces the history of ethnic expulsions to show their wide international legitimacy until the post-World War II period, and to provide a critical context for understanding the genealogy ... More

This chapter traces the history of ethnic expulsions to show their wide international legitimacy until the post-World War II period, and to provide a critical context for understanding the genealogy of repatriation. Before World War II there was neither a right not to be expelled nor a right of repatriation. Any attempted repatriation of minorities failed, such as the situation of Christian minorities in Turkey on the grounds of The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which legitimized the country's refusal to repatriate Christians and its expulsion (and repression) of minorities. This was not the exception, but the norm. Ethnic cleansing was legitimized, not the right of repatriation. Moreover, during World War II, Germany began its population transfers by gathering its ethnic Germans in a series of bilateral treaties with the Baltic states, Italy, Romania, and, following the partition of Poland, the Soviet Union.Less

The Political Ethics of Evangelicals

in Evangelicals and American Foreign Policy

Although Evangelicals emphasize spiritual development over political action and personal morality over public policy, they nevertheless have a distinct approach to social and political engagement. ... More

Although Evangelicals emphasize spiritual development over political action and personal morality over public policy, they nevertheless have a distinct approach to social and political engagement. Some key building blocks of Evangelical ethics include the Chicago Declaration, the Lausanne Covenant, the NAE’s Peace, Freedom and Security Studies Program, the NAE’s “For the Health of the Nation” declaration, and the Cape Town Commitment. Five distinctive traits of the Evangelical political ethics are: 1. the primacy of the spiritual realm, 2. the dual nature of Christian citizenship, 3. the imperative of human dignity, 4. the priority of individual responsibility, and 5. the need for a limited state. The rise in Evangelical political engagement has precipitated significant debate within the movement, with some calling for retrenchment and others for even more political participation.Less

From Reverse to Inverse to Omni-Nodal Dissenting Protestant Mission

Mark P. Hutchinson

in The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, Volume V: The Twentieth Century: Themes and Variations in a Global Context

This chapter traces the shift from unidirectional Protestant foreign missions at the beginning of the twentieth century to globalized missionary efforts at the end of the century, often fuelled by ... More

This chapter traces the shift from unidirectional Protestant foreign missions at the beginning of the twentieth century to globalized missionary efforts at the end of the century, often fuelled by global migration patterns. These can originate in any country or culture, and end up (along relatively predicable paths dictated by rational markets in education, migration, business, and national interest) in almost any other country. The chapter compares the ‘World Missionary Conference 1910’ in Edinburgh with the 1989 ‘Global Consultation on World Evangelization’ held in Manila, as ‘bookends’ for a period of rapid change and indigenization of Christianity around the world. It points to four key vectors as determinative: the rise of short-term missional experientialism, the co-option of non-missionary globalized settings, diasporic mission, and conversion as resistance. The counter-logical global upsurge of grass-roots Christianity after Edinburgh 1910 demonstrates that people appropriating new futures start from where they are, and go to unpredictable places.Less

Breakdown: The Stresemann Memoirs Scandal and Wounds that Failed to Heal

Conan Fischer

in A Vision of Europe: Franco-German Relations during the Great Depression, 1929-1932

As the Berlin Accord unravelled and became a point of disagreement rather than Franco-German rapprochement, the old wounds reopened, particularly those surrounding reparations and disarmament. The ... More

As the Berlin Accord unravelled and became a point of disagreement rather than Franco-German rapprochement, the old wounds reopened, particularly those surrounding reparations and disarmament. The political right gained ground in Germany, undermining French confidence in Berlin’s bona fides while French politics were also gripped by a sense of febrile instability on the eve of fresh elections. Furthermore, French leaders confused a home-grown Alsatian autonomist movement with German-inspired subversion which, despite the best efforts of German diplomacy, triggered one minor upset after another. A greater blow was delivered by the botched publication of the late Stresemann’s private papers alongside sensitive official material. Selective editing in the media left the impression that Stresemann had sought to dupe Briand and that his protestations of friendship were bogus at best. Sporadic efforts continued through 1932 to retrieve the situation, but an impasse at the international disarmament conference simply deepened the sense of estrangement.Less

The Good Doctors: The League of Nations and the Internationalization of the Minorities Problem

Matthew Frank

in Making Minorities History: Population Transfer in Twentieth-Century Europe

This chapter re-examines the negotiations that led up to the signing of the Lausanne Convention between Greece and Turkey in January 1923, including the role played by the Norwegian explorer-hero and ... More

This chapter re-examines the negotiations that led up to the signing of the Lausanne Convention between Greece and Turkey in January 1923, including the role played by the Norwegian explorer-hero and League of Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Fridtjof Nansen, in brokering this first-ever internationally sanctioned compulsory population exchange. It looks at how the concept of population transfer then became legitimized in the interwar years owing to the perceived success of international efforts under the aegis of the League of Nations to resettle Greek refugees from Asia Minor during the 1920s; markedly improved Greco-Turkish relations; the broader modernization and transformation of the Near East; and the deteriorating international situation in the rest of Europe, where, in contrast to the Near East, the minorities problem still loomed large in the 1930s despite, and in part because of, the system of international minority protection then in place.Less

‘A New International Morality’: European Dictatorships and the Reordering of Nationalities

Matthew Frank

in Making Minorities History: Population Transfer in Twentieth-Century Europe

This chapter looks at how the concept of population transfer was imported into central Europe by the Axis powers in the late 1930s. While the focus here is principally on negotiations between Italy ... More

This chapter looks at how the concept of population transfer was imported into central Europe by the Axis powers in the late 1930s. While the focus here is principally on negotiations between Italy and Germany over the South Tyrol in the period 1938-9, the wider context of Nazi aims in the East and Germany’s relations with the Soviet Union in the period up to June 1941 are also examined in relation to the Heim ins Reich transfers. The chapter discusses how these transfers were grounded in a shared reading of the European minorities problem and drew upon the ‘Lausanne model’ of interstate agreement on resettlement. Discussion of Romanian transfer proposals in 1940–1 also shows that emulators of the Nazi New Order were also inspired by the earlier Balkan population exchanges mediated by liberal democracies as well as by actions of the Rome-Berlin Axis.Less

‘A Subject which Excites the Deepest Interest throughout the Civilised World’: Legal Diplomacy at the Conference of Lausanne

Umut Özsu

in Formalizing Displacement: International Law and Population Transfers

This chapter considers the text and travaux préparatoires of the convention by which the compulsory Greek–Turkish exchange was governed. Reading statements at the 1922–3 Conference of Lausanne, it ... More

This chapter considers the text and travaux préparatoires of the convention by which the compulsory Greek–Turkish exchange was governed. Reading statements at the 1922–3 Conference of Lausanne, it explains the convention’s role in shaping the juridico-political architecture of post-Ottoman Turkey. Nearly all delegates agreed that the exchange would need to be undertaken with ‘technical’ legal instruments. This, however, did not prevent those at the negotiating table from drawing upon the very ethno-nationalism they sought to elide through reliance upon legal ‘technique’. Crucially, this strained engagement with ethno-nationalism found expression in the question of how the exchange would bear upon the status of non-Muslims remaining in Turkey. The Mandate System was believed to be incompatible with conditions in Turkey, and minority protection to be insufficient to ensure order. Recourse was thus had to the compulsory exchange, a mechanism that would keep the risk of majority–minority conflicts to a minimum.Less

Downfall and Repudiation

Ryan Gingeras

in Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1908–1922

This chapter summarizes the final two years of the First World War and the political consequences of empire’s defeat in Anatolia. In the four years that followed the Ottoman surrender, two competing ... More

This chapter summarizes the final two years of the First World War and the political consequences of empire’s defeat in Anatolia. In the four years that followed the Ottoman surrender, two competing factions struggled to regain the mantle of leadership in the empire. The initial victors in this struggle, the sultan and his domestic allies, worked hard to punish the CUP for its crimes. Yet the sultan’s government’s collaboration with British, Greek, and French occupying forces, as well as its impotence in the face of the empire’s further partition, ultimately empowered remnants of the CUP to regroup and assert control over the Anatolian countryside. By the end of the so-called Turkish War of Independence, the so-called nationalists, under the command of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, secured their place as the executors of the displaced Ottoman Empire and the founders of the Republic of Turkey.Less

The Romandie: A Commercial Crossroads

Tom Scott

in The Swiss and their Neighbours, 1460-1560: Between Accommodation and Aggression

The Romandie lay at the intersection of international trade routes from Italy over the alpine passes (controlled by Savoy) and north-westwards over the Jura mountains into the Franche-Comté and ... More

The Romandie lay at the intersection of international trade routes from Italy over the alpine passes (controlled by Savoy) and north-westwards over the Jura mountains into the Franche-Comté and onwards to France and the Low Countries, though the pre-eminence of the Genevan fairs was challenged by Lyon. Western Switzerland was heavily reliant upon grain from Alsace and above all salt from the brine pits of the Franche-Comté (essential in cattle-rearing, dairying and cheese-making). The Vaud, on the northern littoral of Lake Geneva was agriculturally fertile (especially viticulture, while Lakes Geneva and Neuchâtel were important sources of fish. Yet the Vaud had few urban centres of importance, barring Lausanne and Geneva, while many new town foundations of 13th/14th century subsequently disappeared.Less