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The Rise of Graduate Medical Education

Kenneth M. Ludmerer

in Time to Heal: American medical education from the turn of the century to the era of managed care

In the years following World War I, medical knowledge, techniques, and practices were growing and changing too rapidly. Even a superior experience in medical school could no longer prepare a person ... More

In the years following World War I, medical knowledge, techniques, and practices were growing and changing too rapidly. Even a superior experience in medical school could no longer prepare a person for private practice. Accordingly, a period of hospital education following graduation—the “internship”—became standard for every physician. In addition, further training was necessary for those who wished to enter specialty practice or pursue academic careers. For these purposes the “residency”—a several-year hospital experience following internship—became the accepted vehicle. In the creation of a system of graduate medical education, the Johns Hopkins Medical School played a seminal role. Nevertheless, the university-based, academic model introduced by Johns Hopkins was never to succeed so completely in graduate medical education as it did in undergraduate medical education. Always, the tension between education and service, between university ideals and apprenticeship traditions, wracked even the best intern and residency programs. Moreover, unlike undergraduate medical education, which remained university-based and regulated, graduate medical education became hospital-based and professionally regulated.Less

The Kantian University: Science and Nation Building at Johns Hopkins

Neil Smith

in American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization

This chapter looks at the Kantian University and its relation to Bowman's work in science and education. It first looks at Bowman's stay at the National Research Council (NRC), where he was ... More

This chapter looks at the Kantian University and its relation to Bowman's work in science and education. It first looks at Bowman's stay at the National Research Council (NRC), where he was eventually offered to become the chair. The next section looks at Bowman's term as the fifth president of John Hopkins University and how Bowman mobilized the university campus for the Second World War, throwing the entire personnel, facilities, and energy into the war effort. This is followed by a discussion of his desire to establish a school of geography and the contradictions of a liberal university.Less

New Rules of Engagement

Cynthia Grant Tucker

in No Silent Witness: The Eliot Parsonage Women and Their Unitarian World

Endowed with her mother's dominant nature and feminist perspective, Martha May Eliot sets her sights on becoming a “social doctor.” Before graduating from Radcliffe, she spends her sophomore year at ... More

Endowed with her mother's dominant nature and feminist perspective, Martha May Eliot sets her sights on becoming a “social doctor.” Before graduating from Radcliffe, she spends her sophomore year at Bryn Mawr and there meets her life companion, Ethel C. Dunham (1883‐1969 ). Martha and Ethel earn their M.D.s at Johns Hopkins Medical School and find positions together in the Pediatrics Department that Edwards A. Park had just created at Yale. Congress's timely passage of the Sheppard‐Towner Act starts Martha on an ascent as a pioneer of public health service for underserved mothers and children. Her demonstration of Vitamin D's efficacy in wiping out rickets results in a call from the Children's Bureau, of which she eventually serves as Chief. She writes Title V of the Social Security Act, later serves as Assistant Director‐General of the World Health Organization, and is one of the founding signers of UNICEF's charter.Less

Johns Hopkins President

Bruce L. R. Smith

in Lincoln Gordon: Architect of Cold War Foreign Policy

Gordon is exhausted by the pressures he has endured since 1960 and is worried that Vietnam has begun to sap the Johnson administration’s energy and shift the policy focus away from Latin America. He ... More

Gordon is exhausted by the pressures he has endured since 1960 and is worried that Vietnam has begun to sap the Johnson administration’s energy and shift the policy focus away from Latin America. He hopes for a way out but he feels trapped by his situation. Suddenly, to his surprise, he receives an offer to become president of Johns Hopkins University. This seems to offer him, like his Hopkins predecessor Milton Eisenhower, the opportunity to be both in the academic world and active as a Washington policy adviser, and he puts aside doubts that he is cut out for the role of a university president. President Johnson allows Gordon to depart and hails him as an idealist but also a realist. The transition to the Hopkins presidency goes smoothly at first, and a grand investiture ceremony takes place in February 1968, attended by forty college and university presidents. This is the end of the old era in university governance, as both the financial situation and the internal governance context at Johns Hopkins rapidly deteriorate. Gordon is caught in a situation of expanding the central administration and shrinking the size of the faculty, and a faculty rebellion begins in the ranks, abetted by opponents within his administrative staff. Unlike at the embassy in Brazil and the assistant secretary’s post in Washington, here he has no readymade administrative hierarchy to assist his efforts. The consensus in American foreign policy to which he was accustomed lies in wreckage, and the old comfortable atmosphere of learning has given way to conflict and tensions. Gordon’s own weaknesses as a politician and chief executive come into play.Less

The Consensus on Idealism, 1870–1900

Bruce Kuklick

in A History of Philosophy in America: 1720-2000

In the new university system of the late nineteenth century, there was a consensus on idealism as the most effective response to the challenge of Charles Darwin. Nine older thinkers typified ... More

In the new university system of the late nineteenth century, there was a consensus on idealism as the most effective response to the challenge of Charles Darwin. Nine older thinkers typified philosophy in the young American university: Borden Parker Bowne; J.E. Creighton, G.S. Fullerton, George Holmes Howison, George Ladd, G. S. Morris, Elisha Mulford, James Seth, and Jacob Gould Sherman. Two younger scholars, Josiah Royce and John Dewey, trained in the leading doctoral programme in the US at Johns Hopkins absorbed these conventional ideas.Less

David H. Hubel

David H. Hubel

in Brain and Visual Perception: The Story of a 25-year Collaboration

David H. Hubel was born in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, to American parents in 1926. In 1929, his family transferred to Montreal where he was brought up and educated and continued to live until the age ... More

David H. Hubel was born in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, to American parents in 1926. In 1929, his family transferred to Montreal where he was brought up and educated and continued to live until the age of 28. He attended Strathona Academy until his graduation in 1943. Given that he ended up as a biologist, it was ironic that he had almost no formal instruction in biology in grade school, high school, or college. He studied mathematics and physics at McGill University, and later entered medical school there. After graduating from medical school, he did a rotating internship at Montreal General Hospital. He was married in June 1953 to Ruth. In 1954, he moved to the United States to work at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and later served at Walter Reed Hospital. In 1958, he went back To Baltimore and began his collaborations with Torsten Wiesel.Less

From Novice in Europe to Expert in America

Matthew Shindell

in The Life and Science of Harold C. Urey

Harold C. Urey returned from Copenhagen knowing that he would be unable to make original contributions to quantum physics, but nonetheless able to read and explain the work coming out of Europe in ... More

Harold C. Urey returned from Copenhagen knowing that he would be unable to make original contributions to quantum physics, but nonetheless able to read and explain the work coming out of Europe in this new field. He made a name for himself in America as an expert in quantum physics and as a pioneer in applying this knowledge to chemistry. This reputation was solidified by the publication of the book, Atoms, Molecules and Quanta, which he coauthored with Arthur E. Ruark. He also in these years had his first academic appointment at Johns Hopkins University, and his second appointment at Columbia University. At Columbia, Urey was able to perform experimental work that led to his discovery of an isotope of hydrogen with mass 2 -- Deuterium. This work was possible thanks to the help of his colleague Ferdinand Brickwedde at the US Bureau of Standards. This discovery won Urey the Nobel Prize.Less

The Group at Hopkins

David H. Hubel

in Brain and Visual Perception: The Story of a 25-year Collaboration

The importance in science of mentors or role models can hardly be exaggerated. For Hubel and Wiesel, Steve Kuffler played a crucial role in terms of day-to-day importance, and this role was sustained ... More

The importance in science of mentors or role models can hardly be exaggerated. For Hubel and Wiesel, Steve Kuffler played a crucial role in terms of day-to-day importance, and this role was sustained over thirty years. The Hopkins group was broad. Hubel, Wiesel, and Kuffler represented central nervous physiology. Ed Furshpan, David Potter, and Kuffler represented synaptic physiology, and Ed Kravitz represented neurochemistry. Johns Hopkins was informal and friendly, contrasting strongly with the rather pompous prevailing atmosphere at Harvard. This may have been because the medical school and hospital were close to each other, geographically and spiritually, at Hopkins.Less

Illusions of Actuality

in Science on the Air: Popularizers and Personalities on Radio and Early Television

In the television era, science programming survived at the network level only if it conformed to a fast-paced, irreverent, time-conscious context. Communication of scientific information via ... More

In the television era, science programming survived at the network level only if it conformed to a fast-paced, irreverent, time-conscious context. Communication of scientific information via television became fragmented and dominated by entertainment values. Popular science was shuttled to the sidelines by network executives unconcerned about altruistic goals of public education. During the 1950s and 1960s, the proportion of television's daily schedule allocated to explaining science declined at the same time that science's accomplishments were gaining ever greater relevance to society. American television viewers never demanded otherwise, and the scientific community turned back to the laboratory with only sporadic, token, and generally ineffective complaint. Two types of programs from that early decade of television demonstrate broadcasting's rapid shift toward entertainment. The first, exemplified by The Johns Hopkins Science Review, adapted radio's educational approaches to a visual context. These presentations retained radio's tone of control and dignity. The second, introduced by a group of one-hour specials underwritten by the Bell Telephone System, altered the landscape of broadcast science. The Bell-funded programs demonstrated to the television industry that science need not be dull. They introduced exciting visual techniques for presenting science, and, perhaps most important, they raised audience expectations for popular science.Less

Experimenting with Illusion

Marcel Chotkowski Lafollette

in Science on American Television: A History

This chapter examines the U.S. television industry's experimentation with the incorporation of science into television programming and discusses some of the most notable science-related shows during ... More

This chapter examines the U.S. television industry's experimentation with the incorporation of science into television programming and discusses some of the most notable science-related shows during the 1940s. These include Serving through Science created by Miller McClintock, The Nature of Things hosted by astronomer Roy K. Marshall, and The Johns Hopkins Science Review. The chapter also explains the impact of the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 on television broadcasting.Less

‘I Still Deny’d, Much Pleas’d to Hear You Sue’: Milton’s Eve, Ovid, and the Restoration Coquette

Laura L. Knoppers

in Milton in the Long Restoration

This chapter explores Anglo-Irish poet John Hopkins’s Milton’s Paradise Lost Imitated in Rhyme (1699), a lively, comic, and virtually unknown adaptation of Books 4, 6, and 9 of Paradise Lost written ... More

This chapter explores Anglo-Irish poet John Hopkins’s Milton’s Paradise Lost Imitated in Rhyme (1699), a lively, comic, and virtually unknown adaptation of Books 4, 6, and 9 of Paradise Lost written in rhymed verse for a female readership. As he depicts a coy, feigning Eve and an Adam who craves the excitement of the chase, Hopkins draws upon the Ovidian arts of love as bawdily featured in Restoration comedies, particularly the works of William Congreve. Hopkins’s rewriting of Ovid within the context of Edenic marriage shows how Milton’s Eve both prefigures and resists the Restoration coquette as figured in such plays as Congreve’s The Old Batchelour, The Double Dealer, and Love for Love. Milton’s links with Restoration drama hence move well beyond John Dryden’s often-studied The State of Innocence.Less

A League of Their Own

Steven Seegel

in Map Men: Transnational Lives and Deaths of Geographers in the Making of East Central Europe

The chapters examines the struggles that Bowman faced as a Wilsonian diplomat, the president of the IGU, and later the President of Johns Hopkins University as he argued for friendship and the moral ... More

The chapters examines the struggles that Bowman faced as a Wilsonian diplomat, the president of the IGU, and later the President of Johns Hopkins University as he argued for friendship and the moral vindication of education as the US adopted the new deal and relations with Eastern European friends became shaky. It situates Penck, through the legacy of his final pupils, as an enabler of German fascism through geographic study. It shares that Rudnyts’kyi faced arrest by Stalinist forces in Kharkov for a life dedicated to assembling a Ukrainian geography and that Teleki and Romer continued to work on their geographies for both their own nations and the transnational communities (Romer helped Bowman to assemble the IGC in 1934). As continuing turmoil in international relations shook Europe in the 1930s, Bowman grew apart from his European intimates and fought to instil a distinctly white-supremist attitude that married education and American conception of empire and civility in his sons.Less

Torsten N. Wiesel

David H. Hubel

in Brain and Visual Perception: The Story of a 25-year Collaboration

Torsten Wiesel was born in 1924 in Uppsala, Sweden, the youngest of five children. In 1947, he began his scientific career in Carl Gustaf Bernhard's laboratory at the Karolinska Institute, where he ... More

Torsten Wiesel was born in 1924 in Uppsala, Sweden, the youngest of five children. In 1947, he began his scientific career in Carl Gustaf Bernhard's laboratory at the Karolinska Institute, where he received his medical degree in 1954. In 1955 he moved to the United States to work at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine under Stephen Kuffler. In 1958, he met David Hubel, beginning a collaboration that would last over twenty years. In 1959, Wiesel and Hubel moved to Harvard University. He became an instructor in pharmacology at Harvard Medical School, beginning a 24-year career with the university. He became professor in the new department of neurobiology in 1968 and its chair in 1973. In 1983, Wiesel joined the faculty of Rockefeller University as head of the Laboratory of Neurobiology. He was president of the university from 1991 to 1998.Less

Using Mammon for Righteousness: Funding Coeducation through Coercive Philanthropy

Joan Marie Johnson

in Funding Feminism: Monied Women, Philanthropy, and the Women's Movement, 1870-1967

Chapter 5 explores what happened when women approached existing coeducational schools offering restricted gifts to benefit women. These donations either forced a school to open its doors to women or ... More

Chapter 5 explores what happened when women approached existing coeducational schools offering restricted gifts to benefit women. These donations either forced a school to open its doors to women or increased the number of women admitted by providing scholarships for women or erecting a women’s building or a women’s dormitory. Like the college founders, these donors believed that women were capable of the same intellectual achievement as men but found that many of America’s best universities resisted coeducation. The women in this chapter, including Mary Garrett, and Phoebe Hearst and the gifts they gave show how money could be wielded to force changes that would benefit women, in the form of access to education and professions formerly restricted to men. Moreover, coeducation at these schools, including Johns Hopkins, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of California, Berkeley, was especially significant. If women were welcomed at these important institutions, they could demonstrate their intellectual and professional capabilities and equality with men.Less

Preparation

Barry Hankins

in Woodrow Wilson: Ruling Elder, Spiritual President

Wilson undertook his undergraduate education at Davidson College and Princeton University, his law school work at the University of Virginia, and, finally, his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins. As he grew ever ... More

Wilson undertook his undergraduate education at Davidson College and Princeton University, his law school work at the University of Virginia, and, finally, his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins. As he grew ever more educated and scholarly, his personal faith remained intact and simple. His own salvation being secured by divine election, Wilson pursued a moral course of action, troubling himself little with theological controversy. In keeping with the spirit of the modern era, at times he blurred the line between the sacred and secular, virtually equating Christianity with anything right and moral, while his personal faith became increasingly intuitive and romantic. It was also during this period of his life that Wilson fell in love—twice, and both times impetuously—first with his cousin then with Ellen Axson, who he would eventually marry. In both instances Wilson revealed how susceptible he could be to a proverbial “love at first sight” romanticism, something that would haunt him later in life.Less

The Bubble Bursts: The Depression Years

Gerard N. Burrow

in A History of Yale's School of Medicine: Passing Torches to Others

This chapter focuses on the new dean, Stanhope Bayne-Jones, who had been a student and later colleague of Winternitz's at Johns Hopkins. His major interest was in bacteriology, and he happily ... More

This chapter focuses on the new dean, Stanhope Bayne-Jones, who had been a student and later colleague of Winternitz's at Johns Hopkins. His major interest was in bacteriology, and he happily accepted an offer to head his own Department of Bacteriology at the new medical school in Rochester. In 1932, Stanhope Bayne-Jones, by then dean at Rochester, was recruited to Yale, primarily to be master of Trumbull College and secondarily to be professor of bacteriology and immunology. President Angell was eager to appoint a scientist as master of one of the new residential colleges funded by the Sterling bequest. In discussing his appointment as Winternitz's successor, Bayne-Jones commented that because he was relatively new to Yale he was viewed as neutral, and that no one else would have been acceptable to Winternitz.Less

Back to the USA

Angela Penrose

in No Ordinary Woman: The Life of Edith Penrose

Edith and E. F. Penrose returned to the USA in 1946 to serve Winant, now the US representative on the UN Economic and Social Council during the first sessions of the United Nations in New York. Edith ... More

Edith and E. F. Penrose returned to the USA in 1946 to serve Winant, now the US representative on the UN Economic and Social Council during the first sessions of the United Nations in New York. Edith supported Eleanor Roosevelt as chair of the Commission for Human Rights in drawing up the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. As tensions rose between the Soviet Union and the USA Winant resigned. Penrose moved to the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton to write Economic Planning for the Peace before becoming professor of Geography and International Relations at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore where Edith took an MA and PhD on economic aspects of patents under Fritz Machlup. Edith’s son David rejoined the family and Edith had another son, Perran. In the autumn of 1947 Edith and her husband were shaken by Winant’s suicide followed by the death of their son, Trevan.Less

Epilogue

Elaine G. Breslaw

in Lotions, Potions, Pills, and Magic: Health Care in Early America

This epilogue provides a brief overview of the major advances in American medicine in the modern period, and how such advances have been challenged by a newly energized alternative medicine movement. ... More

This epilogue provides a brief overview of the major advances in American medicine in the modern period, and how such advances have been challenged by a newly energized alternative medicine movement. The 1890s ushered in a new era in American medical history and a sharp break from the old following the establishment of the first endowed graduate program in medicine at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, an institution that focused on the advancement of laboratory-based science and evidence-based clinical trials. Medicine was finally disconnected from the older methods of learning, teaching, and practice. The new medical school model enabled physicians to regain their important place in American life with a new well-defined role as leaders in disease treatment and prevention. This chapter also discusses the strides made by American medicine by the 1950s, such as the decrease in death from infectious diseases with the help of antibiotics, along with the increase in life expectancy and the sharp divide between orthodox medicine and alternative medical techniques.Less

America—A New Home

in Science and Conscience: The Life of James Franck

After moving to Baltimore, James Franck began to work at Johns Hopkins University and collaborated with Karl F. Herzfeld in examining energy relations of photosynthesis. Their results were presented ... More

After moving to Baltimore, James Franck began to work at Johns Hopkins University and collaborated with Karl F. Herzfeld in examining energy relations of photosynthesis. Their results were presented at the symposium on molecular structure at Princeton and then they wrote a paper entitled “An Attempted Theory of Photosynthesis”. In 1939 Franck became a professor at the University of Chicago where he continued his research in photosynthetic reactions and inhibition of fluorescence.Less