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Aviation emissions are the fastest growing source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Aviation emissions from Annex I Countries increased by 67% between 1990 and 2005 and, according to some estimates, by as much as 90% when aviation emissions from non-Annex I Countries are included for this period. This chapter examines the current status of international aviation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the ongoing debate over developing measures under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) or including the sector in a post-2012 agreement, the moves by the EU to bring international aviation under the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), and issues that will need to be considered when implementing measures at the international level to reduce the sector's emissions.

Chapter 3 examines the State practice and maps out the composition of the number and nature of cases. The purpose of this chapter has two layers: the first layer is to assess the loopholes of dispute resolution mechanisms in international civil aviation and test if the deficiencies embedded in the text of the treaties prove to be true. The second layer is to summarize and highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each forum—the ICAO Council, ad hoc arbitral tribunals, and the ICJ. Section B presents an overview of the case law filed along the same timeline as the air services agreements (ASAs) collected in Chapter 2 (1941–2020). It argues that the number of cases is on the rise and will continue rising in the future. Section C then introduces three fora: the ICAO Council, ad hoc arbitral tribunals, and the ICJ. Of these three fora, the ICAO Council has a special status as a United Nations specialized agency in international civil aviation. This forum is also the optimal choice for reforms proposed in Chapter 5. Section D provides an overview of case law arising out of these disputes under both multilateral air law treaties and bilateral ASAs. Chapter 3 serves as the second cornerstone with practical evidence for proposals in Chapter 5.

The International Map of the World was effectively dormant during World War II, and not long after its postwar revival under the umbrella of the United Nations it was drastically reconceived in the 1960s. The UN eventually discontinued its support altogether in 1986. This chapter uses the wartime and postwar history of the International Map to trace the shifting fortunes of representational mapping in general. It highlights the intense competition between the IMW and the World Aeronautical Chart, which was created by the US during the war but was then adopted by ICAO, the International Civil Aviation Organization. It also discusses related projects like the World Land Use Survey, the World Population Map, the Carte Internationale du Tapis Végétal, the International Map of the Roman Empire, and map-design research by the US military. The overall trajectory connects the decline of the IMW to the rise of cartographic regionalism, a new understanding of maps as tools rather than objective repositories of geographic fact, and the “critical” cartographic scholarship of the 1980s – all of which signal a rejection of the kind of epistemic authority that once anchored international mapping.

Chapter 5 analyses the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism through the adoption of non-military measures aimed at securing a wrongdoing State’s compliance with its secondary obligations of cessation and reparation, in particular the adoption of retorsive measures and countermeasures. It assesses potential problems with the adoption of countermeasures in the terrorism context, including the potential for misevaluating the wrongfulness of a target State’s conduct and continued uncertainty surrounding the legitimacy of collective countermeasures. Finally, Chapter 5 explores the extent to which sub-systems of international law, including diplomatic law and the WTO, affect the right to adopt countermeasures in response to breaches of international terrorism obligations, including the extent to which such sub-system exclude the application of the secondary rules of State responsibility or restrict the scope of their wrongfulness preclusion.

Radionavigation systems come in many different varieties, and different systems can construct very different geographies. The history of radionavigation before GPS is largely a story of technological proliferation, with dozens of solutions developed around the world for a wide variety of needs and user groups. This chapter begins by comparing the earliest such systems of the late 1920s – the Radio Range in the US and Radio Direction Finding (D/F) in Europe – as two ways of understanding the relationship between radio and bounded national space. The creation of many more systems in World War II – especially the invention of hyper-precise blind bombing systems and various “hyperbolic navigation” systems that had much in common with cartographic grids – led to a long and heated battle over radio standards at the International Civil Aviation Organization in the 1950s and 1960s. This chapter makes it clear that these debates over “track guides” and “area coverage,” and especially the development of “integrated navigation” that combined signals from multiple systems, were not leading inevitably to GPS. By the late 1960s, the field of electronic navigation was quite sustainably heterogeneous, and transnational space was becoming increasingly unified without any top-down guiding hand.

The chapter contrasts multilateral negotiations on energy efficiency in the airlines and shipping sectors to explain the importance of consumer demand in the politics of multilateral negotiations on climate change mitigation. Since the analysis focuses on how governments have handled the same issue over the same time span but across two different sectors, both of which are oligopolistic, it is possible to isolate the impacts of downstream markets on the politics of emissions mitigation. The research design examines the impacts of price elasticity, product substitution, and asset requirements among consumers on the economics of emissions mitigation, referencing the differential outcomes in the multilateral negotiations. The findings show that consumer preferences in the airlines industry have made the economics of emissions mitigation unfavorable for building large coalitions in support of global regulation, in contrast to the more traditional coalitions formed around maritime emissions.

This chapter provides insight into the development of internationally interoperable standards for passport and travel documents, and technological advances to facilitate fast and effective processing of passenger information for comparison against watchlists at borders and airports. The demands posed to border controls are considered and how these have changed over time, with particular emphasis on the modern-day threat of identity impostors and the development of facial recognition technology at Automated Border Control points. The continuing central role of human personnel for verifying the identity and nationality of travellers is described, with consideration of personnel selection, training, and performance monitoring.