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Although international administrators wield enormous power, they are not directly accountable to the populations over which they rule. Strictly speaking, a transitional administrator is accountable to the international body that appoints him or her. The lack of transparency is one way in which the issue of accountability manifests itself: key decisions may be taken by international authorities without sufficient public explanation offered for the reasoning behind them, creating the impression of arbitrary rule. Limited accountability does not, however, mean the total absence of mechanisms for local scrutiny. Discusses what mechanisms exist to help ensure that international authority is exercised on behalf of, and for the benefit of, the local population. Are these mechanisms adequate and, if not, how can accountability be strengthened?

Concerns about professional and system errors and mistakes have dominated policy and practice debates and changes in England ever since the problem of child abuse was (re)discovered over forty years ago. The period has been punctuated by a series of high profile scandals usually where a child has died and where professionals have failed to intervene effectively. A major policy response has been the use of public enquiries and, more recently, ‘serious case reviews’ to investigate what has gone wrong with the aim of learning from the experiences to ensure that such a tragedy could be avoided in the future. The chapter considers the question of how far the changes introduced have had the effect of increasing learning and developing a system better able to identify and respond appropriately to the need for protection, or have primarily intensified the culture of blame and failure in which professionals are expected to operate. It suggests that while the changes introduced over the last 40 years have perhaps made for a safer system protecting children the system has become more ‘risk averse’ and reactive rather than being able to develop policies and practices which are able to develop longer term preventative strategies.

Chapter 3 discusses the processes of ‘policy enactment’ (Ball, Maguire and Braun 2012). This term is used to emphasise that there is no simple straight line between what a policy text states and what happens on the ground. Enactment describes the processes by which teachers interpret and reinterpret national policy, translating it to fit their own contexts. In the discussion, I consider the importance of what has been called the affective policy ‘tone’, in shaping enactment, drawing on Ben Anderson’s work to describe the affective characteristics of the wider social and political climate. The chapter also outlines the current education policy context in England, emphasising the key role of high stakes testing in shaping teachers’ work lives and the emphasis on traditional academic subjects, leading to the marginalisation of citizenship education described in Chapter 2. The chapter finishes by introducing the schools involved in this research. They consist of nine case study schools and eight schools that were visited for a one-off interview.

The lack of a proper and robust system of accountability and local oversight was thought to be one of the principal reasons why the ‘Trojan Horse’ affair was allowed to gain such traction, and why it resulted in such a profound crisis for education and for school governance in England. This chapter analyses the cultural, social and political factors that have influenced democratic accountability in education since the post war consensus. Placing it in the context of accountability of public services, it outlines evolutionary changes in terms of what constitutes democratic accountability. The chapter also investigates what impact the English inspection system has had on educational accountability and how this in turn has influenced the policies and practices of school governing.

This chapter deals with Iraq’s struggle between the years 1991-2003, against the international supervision by the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that were trying to expose Saddam’s unconventional weapons. It describes their efforts to dismantle Iraq from its non conventional weapons and production capabilities. Saddam’s cousin defection and its repercussions for the commissions’ activities, and the continuing Coalition attacks on various targets in Iraq in order to convince Saddam to cooperate with those organizations. The struggle between the sides surrounding this issue brought the Coalition countries headed by the US to decide to go to another war against Iraq (in 2003), thus ultimately bringing to the collapse of Saddam’s regime and the armed.

The 1983 outbreak of E. coli O:157-related illness traced to hamburgers sold by Jack in the Box restaurant has been called the 9/11 of food safety. This chapter demonstrates how media coverage and civil litigation in response to this outbreak transformed the regulation of fresh meat and poultry production. The chapter provides a brief history of beef and poultry inspection, including passage of the landmark Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906. The chapter then shows how litigation brought by attorney Bill Marler against Jack in the Box prolonged press coverage of the outbreak for years and mobilized consumer advocates, both of which created public pressure for major regulatory reform, culminating in the USDA’s imposition of HACCP requirements on the beef and poultry industries. The chapter also details how Jack in the Box hired HACCP expert Dave Theno to institute risk management controls throughout the company’s supply chain, from slaughterhouse to service counter. After assessing the public health impact of these reforms, the chapter observes that policy change in the food safety system progresses in fits and starts, a pattern that is elucidated using the theory of punctuated equilibrium.

This chapter focuses on the agreements dealing with customs clearance. The first agreement covered is the Import Licensing Agreement which includes a discussion of the struggle to define exactly what the term ‘import licensing’ means as well as automatic and non-automatic licensing. The chapter next covers the Customs Valuation Agreement followed by the Agreement on Preshipment Inspection. Finally the chapter explores the Agreement on Trade Facilitation.

This chapter explains that by the end of the third assault, the nation's food safety programs were clearly dysfunctional. The Food and Drug Administration has regulatory responsibility for more than $450 billion worth of food each year that is manufactured, prepared, and sold at more than 156,000 establishments throughout the country. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 established a comprehensive regulatory regime under which a meat packing facility could not operate without an inspector from the United States Department of Agriculture on the premises. At the outset of the Laissez Faire Revival, the food industry was undergoing massive change. During the Laissez Faire Revival, food safety regulation consisted mainly of lax regulation interrupted by spurts of activity in response to crises. The incidence of food-borne diseases and food-related allergies grew at an alarming rate during the Laissez Faire Era. At the same time that food-borne pathogens were getting heartier and more virulent, globalization facilitated the rapid spread of newly evolved pathogens.

The history of the regulation of the personal social services from 1970 onwards is described, contextualised and analysed. The various purposes and styles of inspection within regulatory systems are identified and discussed. The effects and contributions of competitive tendering of services, the Performance Assessment Framework, Joint Reviews, Best Value and Special Measures are noted. Adverse criticisms in the late 1980s of the Social Services Inspectorate, established in 1985, are contrasted with the high regard in which the Inspectorate was held by the late 1990s. The chapter then sets out the subsequent rapid changes to the regulatory structure in the years 2004-2010.The campaign for the registration of social workers, leading to the establishment in 2001 of the General Social Care Council, and its subsequent replacement first by the Health and Care Professions Council and then by Social Work England, is also discussed.The chapter compares unfavourably the experience in England, with its chronic institutional instability, with those of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, which have been characterised by more constructive partnerships.

This study deals with the water system elements from twenty-five ancient Greek sites. The elements are grouped (as in the comparative case-studies of Chapter 15) into eight main categories, with that of “fittings and auxiliaries” subdivided into seventeen kinds of elements. Although 25 sites times 8 categories times 17 elements is 3400 possible combinations, which is more than we have room to discuss in a limited work like this, from a statistical point of view such numbers are trivial. However, scientists have recently been working with the concept of “clusters” in cases like this one where the assortments are too few for applying the methods of statistics (see H. Blalock, Causal Inferrence in Non-Experimental Research.) What they look for are combinations that seem to recur in meaningful patterns. One can think of a partially ordered set, where the order is apparent within categories but not over all of them. Bathtubs, for instance, can be arranged in groups of like form, but distinguishing between large bathtubs and small plunge pools may be difficult. Alternately, one may know the relative order of categories, but not their absolute magnitude. An example here is A, not knowing a language at all; B, being able to read the language; C, speaking and reading the language fluently. At what point does B grade into C? It’s a judgment call. Throughout this book I have approached the material with an eye to what we can determine using irregular and “messy” data, and this concept of clusters has enabled me to appreciate the significance of the combinations of elements that have been observed at different places, times, and by different excavators, even when the number of examples is few. Both the objects found together in clusters, and the certainty of finding them together, vary. For instance, settling or catchment basins (Figs. 16.2, 16.3) are always associated with pipes or channels to facilitate drainage. The ditch and bench supports for a latrine are frequently associated with a sewer under the street outside the building, but sometimes with a cesspool instead.

Sourcing information about the outcomes of projects from local people might provide an alternative pathway to better performance and more selective decisions about the allocation of development assistance. This chapter assesses whether the establishment of citizen complaint mechanisms has provided a pathway to selectivity in allocation of environmentally risky projects. It demonstrates that two conditions must hold to achieve more selective allocation: (1) civil society groups must be available to provide monitoring; and (2) they must provide monitoring about lending that is subject to high levels of oversight from donor countries. Civil society groups are more likely to be available as monitors when there is more organization around environmental issues in a country and where political freedoms are protected. Donor countries have more oversight over concessional lending resources that require regular replenishments. These results demonstrate that harnessing information from civil society groups can promote accountability for performance and selectivity.

This chapter examines the regulation of third party content transmitted by Internet Service Providers (ISPs), though that general term of art needs definition for the purposes of the chapter. The chapter considers in turn three aspects of the transmission of content over ISPs, though not the provision of content owned by or affiliated with those ISPs. The aspects considered are in turn:

A blocking injunction is an order requiring an internet intermediary to implement technical measures directed at preventing or disabling access to a specified internet location. The essential purpose of such an order is to restrict the ability of individuals located in a particular jurisdiction to access or download material the subject of the order using the respondent’s service. Although theoretically available against any service provider, blocking injunctions are most commonly sought against ISPs, who possess a comparatively high degree of control at the network layer and may operate systems that can drop or re-route packets based on criteria including the destination of a request. Blocking injunctions require the respondent to adopt these technical measures in an attempt to prevent others from using its service to infringe the applicant’s rights. Section 2 provides an overview of the most common technical measures employed by ISPs.

Rights are conferred on individual shareholders by a number of provisions in the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006). These rights may be enforced by an individual shareholder free of any restrictions under the rule in Foss v Harbottle. The principal rights concerned are: