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The Golden Rule

MARCUS GEORGE SINGER

in The Ideal of a Rational Morality: Philosophical Compositions

This chapter argues that the Golden Rule does not require anyone to do for another what he thinks he would want himself to do if he were that other. ... More

This chapter argues that the Golden Rule does not require anyone to do for another what he thinks he would want himself to do if he were that other. Such an interpretation makes it equivalent to its Inversion. What the Golden Rule requires is that everyone ought to act in his relations with others on the same standards or principles that he would have them apply in their treatment of him, taking account of and respecting, but not necessarily acceding to, their wishes and desires. This is the most that anyone can reasonably ask, but nothing less will suffice. Naturally, the Golden Rule by itself does not unambiguously and definitely determine just what these ‘standards or principles’ should be, but it does something towards determining this, and it is not necessary that it do everything.Less

Other Key Sayings

Anna Wierzbicka

in What Did Jesus Mean?: Explaining the Sermon on the Mount and the Parables in Simple and Universal Human Concepts

Offers new interpretations of many of Jesus’ most memorable sayings, bringing into sharper focus their originality, often obscured in the literature by various superficial parallels. For example, ... More

Offers new interpretations of many of Jesus’ most memorable sayings, bringing into sharper focus their originality, often obscured in the literature by various superficial parallels. For example, drawing on Clement of Alexandria and Dietrich Bonhoeffer, the chapter argues for the following interpretation of the saying “Do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing:” (1) Sometimes when a person is doing something good for other people this person thinks: “I am doing something good for other people”(2) It will not be good if you think like this when you are doing something good for other people.By using simple and universal human concepts, the chapter establishes the originality of Jesus’ “Golden Rule,” often mistakenly presented as something recurring in many different religious traditions. It also offers new interpretations of key sayings like, for example, “Do not judge . . . ,” “Ask and it will be given to you,” and “A good tree cannot bear bad fruit, nor can a bad tree bear good fruit.”Less

TOP‐DOWN MORALITY

Wendell Wallach and Colin Allen

in Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong

Implementing any top‐down ethical theory of ethics in an artificial moral agent will pose both computational and practical challenges. One central concern is framing the background information ... More

Implementing any top‐down ethical theory of ethics in an artificial moral agent will pose both computational and practical challenges. One central concern is framing the background information necessary for rule and duty based conceptions of ethics and utilitarianism. Asimov's three laws come readily to mind when considering rules for (ro)bots, but even these apparently straightforward principles are not likely to be practical for programming moral machines. To check whether a machine's actions conform to high‐level rules such as the Golden Rule, the deontology of Kant's categorical imperative, or the general demands of consequentialism, e.g. utilitarianism, fail to be computationally tractable.Less

Ricoeur: Reciprocity and Mutuality—From the Golden Rule to Agapē

Marcel Hénaff

in The Philosophers' Gift: Reexamining Reciprocity

This chapter addresses Paul Ricoeur's Oneself as Another (1992), in which he presents his most profound problematization of reciprocity through a questioning of the concepts of solicitude, promise, ... More

This chapter addresses Paul Ricoeur's Oneself as Another (1992), in which he presents his most profound problematization of reciprocity through a questioning of the concepts of solicitude, promise, otherness, and attestation, among others. Ricoeur appears to distance himself from the concept of reciprocity, and instead he promotes the concept of mutuality. He views the former as leading to conflict, and the latter to benevolence. Ritual exchanges of “mutual” gifts should then be understood as exceptional moments that lead to “states of peace,” furthermore leading to the relationship of agapē. However, it is questionable whether one can accept Ricoeur's interpretation, which underestimates the element of struggle and differentiation that is a foundational factor in the ceremonial gift and underlies every bond of reciprocity, including the bond stated by the Golden Rule.Less

Implementing the Decision

James C. Raines and Nic T. Dibble

in Ethical Decision Making in School Mental Health

There is an important difference between “managing” the ethical predicament, rather than “resolving” it. Managing a problem does not mean that we can necessarily prevent all negative outcomes whereas ... More

There is an important difference between “managing” the ethical predicament, rather than “resolving” it. Managing a problem does not mean that we can necessarily prevent all negative outcomes whereas resolving a problem implies that it can be reconciled to everyone's complete satisfaction. Prior to implementing a course of action, practitioners should subject it to five tests: the Golden Rule, the fiduciary relationship, generalizability, publicity, and universality. Regardless of the decision, some stakeholders will be unhappy so it is important to be able to justify the decision. Criticism can be managed by focusing on three strengths: protection of the student or others from harm; handling the present crisis; and focusing on the positives of the situation such as the fact that the student confided in a trustworthy adult. Finally, it is important to document the ethical decision making steps before implementing the decision.Less

Ritual and Ren in Confucius’s World: Humaneness-cum-Justice at the Incipience of Chinese Moral-Political Philosophy

Tao Jiang

in Origins of Moral-Political Philosophy in Early China: Contestation of Humaneness, Justice, and Personal Freedom

At the very beginning of Chinese moral-political philosophy stood Confucius, who attempted to maintain a continuum between partialist humaneness and impartialist justice in his articulation of ideal ... More

At the very beginning of Chinese moral-political philosophy stood Confucius, who attempted to maintain a continuum between partialist humaneness and impartialist justice in his articulation of ideal personhood, family, and polity. This is reflected in the way two core concepts, i.e., ritual (li) and the virtue of ren, in his philosophy are formulated. In his effort to rescue the collapsing ritual order, Confucius formulated the virtue of ren, usually translated as the Good, humaneness, humanity, human-heartedness, authoritative or consummate conduct, or benevolence, and touted this newly formulated virtue as the new moral foundation for the ritual order that used to be grounded in the Zhou kings’ claim of the Mandate of Heaven. Confucius’s ren contains both a partialist element favoring one’s family and an impartialist element when dealing with others. Confucius’s effort set the parameters for the mainstream moral-political project during the classical period, but his vision would be seriously challenged and significantly reformulated.Less

The ‘Rule of Law of Love’

H. R. H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad

in Within the Love of God: Essays on the Doctrine of God in Honour of Paul S. Fiddes

This chapter begins with the New Testament text of the two great commandments, and explores the relationship between the two great commandments and the so-called ‘Golden Rule’, arguing that the ... More

This chapter begins with the New Testament text of the two great commandments, and explores the relationship between the two great commandments and the so-called ‘Golden Rule’, arguing that the Golden Rule ‘hangs on’ and is a restatement of the two great commandments. Drawing on the nineteenth-century phrase ‘the rule of law’, Prince Ghazi proposes the phrase ‘the rule of law of love’ to express this Biblical principle. He then applies it to three areas: the interpretation of the Bible, focusing on the account of the Canaanite woman in Mathew 15 and on gospel texts which seem to promote violence; issues of social interaction, such as the raising of children in a marriage where only one spouse is a believer; and the contribution this hermeneutical principle may make to the philosophical basis for law.Less

Impartiality

Derek Parfit

in On What Matters: Volume One

This chapter presents a philosophical discussion of impartiality, first by considering the Golden Rule, which says we ought to treat others as we would want others to treat us. The Golden Rule is ... More

This chapter presents a philosophical discussion of impartiality, first by considering the Golden Rule, which says we ought to treat others as we would want others to treat us. The Golden Rule is similar to Immanuel Kant's Formula of Universal Law, in which he declares: ‘I want everyone else to be beneficent toward me; hence I ought also to be beneficent toward everyone else.’ Although Kant calls his formula ‘the supreme principle of morality’, he dismisses the Golden Rule as ‘trivial’ and unfit to be a universal law. The chapter argues that Kant's Formula of Universal Law fails to condemn many wrong acts, even if these problems have a Kantian solution. It also explores the Rarity Objection, the High Stakes Objection, and the Non-Reversibility Objection. Finally, it explains the Kantian Contractualist Formula, which says everyone ought to follow the principles whose universal acceptance everyone could rationally will.Less

Justified Untruthfulness

Chris Heffer

in All Bullshit and Lies?: Insincerity, Irresponsibility, and the Judgment of Untruthfulness

This chapter outlines a systematic framework for analyzing the many discursive circumstances in which speakers may justifiably suspend their commitment to truthfulness. Other approaches to ethical ... More

This chapter outlines a systematic framework for analyzing the many discursive circumstances in which speakers may justifiably suspend their commitment to truthfulness. Other approaches to ethical justifiability, such as the overtness of the communication and the epistemic categorization of conventional speech settings, are considered but rejected. The framework of suspensions set out here provides for a more flexible and nuanced analysis that does not prejudge the epistemic status of a given discursive context. Three main types of suspension—conventional, consequential, and condonable—are identified through application of the Golden Rule, and the chapter considers the conditions under which they are both justifiable in principle and justified in practice. While breach of trust is the primary determinant of whether or not a speaker’s suspension of commitment to truthfulness is justifiable in principle, there is no necessary correlation between discourse context and trust.Less

Morality

Andrew Millie

in Philosophical Criminology

This chapter demonstrates that there is much crossover between moral philosophy ad criminology. The day-to-day interests within criminology are linked with ideas and notions to do with morality, ... More

This chapter demonstrates that there is much crossover between moral philosophy ad criminology. The day-to-day interests within criminology are linked with ideas and notions to do with morality, whether to criminalise, how to police, how to punish, limitations of social control and how to side with the powerless. These are all questions which revolve around ideas of morality. This chapter discusses different philosophical traditions such as virtues and consequences and deontological notions of duty and rules. Then a historic association between utilitarian thinking and criminology is noted, concluding by considering the Golden Rule and Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative.Less

Justice

Robert Stevens

in Torts and Rights

It is common to try to explain the law of torts through one or more of the instrumentalist goals it could be thought to pursue. These goals, such as compensation, deterrence, loss spreading and ... More

It is common to try to explain the law of torts through one or more of the instrumentalist goals it could be thought to pursue. These goals, such as compensation, deterrence, loss spreading and punishment, cannot justify the law as it is currently found. Corrective justice is an alternative, but requires explication. On a narrow view, corrective justice solely justifies the secondary obligations of correction created by the infringement of primary rights, but does not explain the primary rights themselves. On a wider view, corrective justice is intended to mean the bilateral justice as between any two persons. Used in this broader sense the label ‘corrective justice’ is misleading, and the label commutative justice may be preferred. The common law is based upon our natural rights, one against another, based upon the negative formulation of the Golden Rule: do not do unto others what you would not want done unto yourself.Less

Religious Conflict and Moral Consensus: Hobbes, Rawls, and Two Types of Moral Justification

Daniel Eggers

in Hobbes on Politics and Religion

This chapter is devoted to Hobbes’s attempt to set up the moral theory that grounds his political argument in a way that makes it equally acceptable to proponents of quite different religious and ... More

This chapter is devoted to Hobbes’s attempt to set up the moral theory that grounds his political argument in a way that makes it equally acceptable to proponents of quite different religious and ideological views. The purpose of the chapter is, first, to demonstrate that Hobbes does in fact pursue this strategy and appeal to a consensus omnium at various points of his derivation of the state of war and his doctrine of natural law and natural right; secondly, to systematically describe Hobbes’s underlying approach as an example of ‘extra-moral justification’ and contrast it with John Rawls’s appeal to an ‘overlapping consensus’ as an example of ‘intra-moral justification’; and thirdly, to assess the respective merits of the two types of moral justification with regard to the challenge of religious pluralism.Less

The Evolution of Moral Norms

Dennis L. Krebs

in The Origins of Morality: An Evolutionary Account

This chapter contains an account of how culturally universal and culturally specific moral norms evolved. Norms evolve when members of groups make rules to formalize agreements about how they should ... More

This chapter contains an account of how culturally universal and culturally specific moral norms evolved. Norms evolve when members of groups make rules to formalize agreements about how they should behave in order to uphold the social order. The rules and sanctions that members of groups create to control the behavior of others end up controlling their own behavior. People serve as agents of selection, determining which standards and customs get repeated and develop into moral norms. Norms such as the norm of reciprocity and the Golden Rule that prescribe fair and reversible solutions to social conflicts are universal because they uphold mutually-beneficial forms of cooperation and enable people to resolve their conflicts of interest in optimal ways. However, the content of specific moral norms may vary within and across cultures for a variety of adaptive and maladaptive reasons.Less

In Search of Religion in Everyday Life

Nancy Tatom Ammerman

in Sacred Stories, Spiritual Tribes: Finding Religion in Everyday Life

This chapter suggests that the study of religion in society should include everyday interaction as captured in the narratives that give an account of life. Growing attention to “everyday religion,” ... More

This chapter suggests that the study of religion in society should include everyday interaction as captured in the narratives that give an account of life. Growing attention to “everyday religion,” “lived religion,” and “Golden Rule Christianity” has made clear that macro-theoretical accounts of secularization and global surveys of beliefs do not capture the presence of the sacred in the modern world. The chapter describes the research participants and the study’s data gathering methods, which included an oral life history interview, photo elicitation interviews, and oral diaries. It introduces the domains of personal practice, religious community, household, work, health, and public life that will be explored.Less

Quantum transport

B. K. Ridley FRS

in Quantum Processes in Semiconductors

In certain cases, the electron involved in the scattering process may begin in a well-defined initial state and end up in an equally well-defined final state. Scattering is assumed to conserve energy ... More

In certain cases, the electron involved in the scattering process may begin in a well-defined initial state and end up in an equally well-defined final state. Scattering is assumed to conserve energy and crystal momentum and occurs at a rate given by Fermi's Golden Rule. Because the dynamic state of each particle cannot be determined precisely, the concepts of statistical physics must be taken into account in order to describe the observable properties of the system. Thus, both quantum and statistical concepts must be incorporated into the description of semiconductor physics via the concept of the density matrix. This chapter focuses on quantum transport in semiconductors by considering systems that can be reasonably well described in terms of single-particle states. It first looks at the density matrix and uses it to derive the Lindhard dielectric function before turning to screening effects and two-level systems. It then looks at Fermi's Golden Rule as well as Wannier-Stark states, the intracollisional field effect, and the semi-classical approximation.Less

Moral Standards

Steven M. Cahn and Christine Vitrano

in Happiness and Goodness: Philosophical Reflections on Living Well

This chapter examines the nature of acting morally, a necessary condition for living well. One principle common to many religious traditions is the Golden Rule. Its positive formulation, attributed ... More

This chapter examines the nature of acting morally, a necessary condition for living well. One principle common to many religious traditions is the Golden Rule. Its positive formulation, attributed to Jesus, is: “In everything do to others as you would have them do to you.” The negative formulation, attributed to Confucius, is: “What is hateful to you, do not to your neighbor.” This chapter considers two other moral standards, each of which has sometimes been thought to be the supreme moral principle. One was originally formulated by Immanuel Kant, who argues that the moral worth of an action is to be judged not by its consequences but by the nature of the maxim (the principle) that motivates the action. The second principle focuses on consequences, one defended by John Stuart Mill. Mill was a leading advocate for the ethical position known as “utilitarianism,” according to which an action is right insofar as it promotes the happiness of humanity and wrong in so far as it promotes unhappiness. The chapter argues that happiness is the missing element that has to be added to an ethical life to render it well-lived.Less

Considerateness: (Shu 恕)

in Shizi: China's First Syncretist

This chapter describes the consideration of the Golden Rule as something found in thinking, speaking, and acting. It argues that to be considerate is to act with propriety toward others. ... More

This chapter describes the consideration of the Golden Rule as something found in thinking, speaking, and acting. It argues that to be considerate is to act with propriety toward others. Considerateness takes the (other) person as the thing to be considered: “That which you do not desire, do not do it to other people. (If you) hate it in other people then rid it from yourself. (If you) desire it in other people then seek it in yourself.” To speak about things that do not increase propriety and yet to (still) speak of them, this is a weed of talking. To do things that do not increase propriety and yet to (still) do them, this is a weed of action. (If) there is propriety in (your) contemplation, then (your) wisdom will be superior (to others). (If) there is propriety in (your) words, then (your) words will be a guide (for others). (If) there is propriety in (your) handling of affairs, then (your) actions will be a model (for others).Less