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Although embattled, Melanchthon continued to defend evangelical free will until his death in 1560. In the twilight of his career, he wrote the expanded and revised Latin version of the Examination of Ordinands, he fought against the attacks of Nikolaus Gallus, he reported to the Elector August on his views on the will, and he penned the substantial Response to the Bavarian Articles. To the end, he held that the choice of faith in Christ had three causes: the Word, the Spirit, and the free human will. Although restrained and polite until 1560, Calvin now publicly denounced Melanchthon.

The Eclogues is examined as a collection extending the bounds of Hellenistic pastoral, partly on the model of the Theocritean collection. Particular emphasis is laid on Eclogues 4, 6, and 10, where generic complexity is most obvious and most overtly foregrounded. Here, we have a classic case of generic complexity, driven both by Hellenistic precedent (Theocritus) and by the political demands of the stormy triumviral period (Caesar, Pollio, land-confiscations).

Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)T-cell populations can be delineated into subsets based on their expression of cell-surface proteins such as cluster of differentiation (CD) cell surface markers. However, immunophenotyping using flow cytometry in birds has focused on cell characterization in the thymus and spleen during development in chickens. West Nile virus (WNV) causes differential infections in birds, ranging the entire spectrum of pathogenesis. In order to accurately assess immunocompetence to diseases such as WNV in birds, more efficient methodology to access natural variability in avian immune function must be devised and understood. Previously, lymphocyte subpopulations CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ have been found to be critical for clearing infection of WNV in mammals. Focusing on chickens, a species that is susceptible but not infective for WNV, our objectives were to: (1) further develop flow cytometry for estimating subpopulations of lymphocytes in peripheral blood from poultry, (2) estimate the best antibody and cell marker combination for estimating lymphocyte subpopulations, and (3) estimate repeatability and application to other avian species susceptible to WNV. Immunophenotyping of CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, and CD45+ was successfully completed for chicken peripheral blood but not for the Common Raven (Corvus corax) or Black-billed Magpie (Pica hudsonia). Future studies include immunophenotyping during infection studies of WNV in chickens and further development of flow cytometry for other bird species.

Between the century of the first teachers (roughly 240–140 bc) and the efflorescence of literary activity in the first centuries bc and ad, a small hint of the variety of Roman schooling is provided in a notice about a single school. The innovative methods of a rhetorician had so offended the censors of 92 bc that they issued an edict of disapproval. The intended target, Plotius Gallus, may not have inaugurated the practice of training advanced students in making speeches in Latin (without the use of Greek study materials or Greek practice speeches), but this practice, or perhaps his students' success, drew official ire. The censuring of Gallus's school itself constitutes important evidence for the rise of the institution of schooling and its check by official and traditional institutions. This chapter examines the threat perceived in Gallus's school and curriculum.

This chapter describes how London was rebuilt in a major phase of urban redesign likely to date c. AD 52, perhaps when an earlier supply-base was converted into a city. This involved a significant degree of cadastral reform. These works were probably initiated by the governor Didius Gallus. Busy construction programmes of the 50s involved the introduction of a new street grid, London’s first waterfront revetments, warehouses around the forum, and new bathhouses on the borders of town. A sacred precinct may also have been established around natural springs on a hillside overlooking the town. London’s first suburbs were established, and included workshops built and used following pre-Roman technologies. The contrast presented by these unusual and peripheral sites is used to argue the marginal status of British communities within the Roman city. A further programme of urban expansion dating c. AD 60 is also described.

This chapter explores the metaleptic incursions of deities into various spheres of narrative and acts of narration, focusing on two cases in Latin love elegy. It first sketches some of the key dynamics of divine epiphany in Greco-Roman poetry from Homer on, differentiating epiphanies in which the divinity inspires the poet from those in which characters receive prophetic information. In Latin love elegy, these categories can overlap, since the elegist is both the hero of his own story and simultaneously the omniscient extradiegetic narrator. So in [Tibullus] 3.4, Apollo appears to the poet Lygdamus, but, instead of acting as the god of poetic inspiration, simply informs Lygdamus of the infidelity of his puella Neaera, tells the story of his own love affair with Admetus, and offers advice about love. This epiphany is compared with its primary intertext, the visit of Amor to the exiled poet in Ovid, Ex Ponto 3.3. The chapter argues that elegy, as a genre in which author and narrator usually share a name but fulfil multiple narrative functions, is especially liable to a strong form of metalepsis; and that these two poems in particular use metaleptic divine epiphany to elide the differences between gods and poets, revisit the Augustan-era obsession with who has the authority to say what to whom, and thereby show how the forces of elegy destabilize hierarchies beyond those of gender and class. The chapter suggests in conclusion that both poems may owe something to the lost work of their predecessor Gallus.

This chapter examines The Cloud of Unknowing and the texts related to it. The Cloud of Unknowing, attributed to a late fourteenth-century young author, continues the English apophatic tradition. Concerned with the impossibility of knowing God, Cloud takes its orientation from the work of Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita, who in turn followed on from Gregory of Nyssa. This chapter first provides an overview of the canon of the Cloud author's works before turning to a discussion of the relationship of the mystically inclined human being to God as tackled in Cloud and in The Book of Privy Counselling. It then considers the Cloud author's theological “anthropology,” along with the influence of Thomas Gallus on the Cloud texts. It also explores the Cloud author's comparable attempt to incorporate the mysticism of love into Dionysian mysticism of being.

This chapter argues that Virgil’s Eclogues give literary form to Rome’s solitary sphere and make solitude their central social and literary problem. A meditation on Virgil’s use of the verb meditari (“to meditate, contemplate, practice”) and on the fourth Eclogue provides background for a formulation of Virgil’s model of “loveful reading” that, in its solitude, nuances readings of the Eclogues as representing dreams of social reciprocity and communal (pastoral) humanism. Drawing on multiple genealogical and comparative sources, and the whole of the Eclogues book, it argues that the first, fifth, and tenth Eclogues privilege the solitary over the private and public. Finally, it shows how Virgil confounds the commonplace assignment of the pastoral of solitude to later literary periods, in ways appreciated by two of Virgil’s closest readers: John Milton and Andrew Marvell.

This chapter analyzes a chronological problem in the Gallus passage involving Silenus' song and suggests the Scaliger–Heyne transposition as a possible solution. Scaliger and Heyne transposed lines 64–73 to follow 81. In so doing, Silenus' song now describes a general movement from creation through to contemporary times and anticipates precisely the Metamorphoses of Ovid, whose indebtedness to the eclogue is so clear. The Scaliger–Heyne transposition also has subsidiary advantages, of which the first is that a central paragraph of myth (41–81, omitting 64–73) is now framed by two other paragraphs of ten lines each (31–40 and 64–73). The second advantage is that the transposition helps to determine the function of the last five lines of the poem (82–6).

Propertius’ text is fraught with controversy, and this introductory chapter addresses several contentious issues: the state of his text, his political affiliations, his relationship with Cornelius Gallus, his knowledge of Greek literature and the fictiveness of the elegies. It also argues that Propertius must be seen as the third great poet in the circle of Maecenas, not as a member of the elegiac tradition later invented by Ovid. A methodology is set out for interpreting the frequent instances of mythological aporia, where an exemplum seems to be superfluous, irrelevant, or to fit its rhetorical context poorly. Two concrete examples of this approach are offered, one as applied to an elegy of Propertius and another to an ode of Horace; the latter is an effort to show that this approach is valid for Augustan poetry in general, and not just an attempt to rationalize a hopelessly corrupt textual tradition.

This chapter is a survey of the intertextual significance of myth in the remainder of Propertius’ first book, excluding those poems that engage mainly with Virgil, which are reserved for the next chapter. Again and again, mythology is the means by which Propertius defines his own poetry by articulating its oppositional relationship to other genres: iambic, tragedy, epic, and the love poetry of Catullus and Cornelius Gallus.

After Columbanus was expelled from Luxeuil, he journeyed to Paris and Metz. Theudebert, ruler of Austrasia, proposed that Columbanus found a monastery on the eastern edges of his kingdom. Columbanus consented and led his monks to the Lake Constance area, where they engaged in a failed missionary attempt. They angered the local populace with their forceful proselytization and were soon driven out of the region. Columbanus resumed his initial plan to relocate to Italy, but one of his monks, Gallus, was left behind and later set up a small hermitage near the Steinach stream. Jonas of Bobbio described the entire episode in terms of mission, but Columbanus was not literally a missionary. His Alamannian activities are best understood when compared to his other attempts at monastic foundation. This chapter explores the political undertones of the Alamannian mission, the reasons for its ultimate failure, and the later achievements of Gallus.

Columbanus is one of the most important figures in Christianization on the Continent in the late sixth and early seventh centuries. His foundations have been well studied, but one of his disciples, Gallus, is rarely discussed in this context. Though well known as the founder of the hermitage at the Steinach, Gallus is never considered an important part of the Columbanian monasteries. This chapter focuses on Gallus’s role in Columbanian monasticism and investigates the relationship between him and the Columbanian community. Why did the the Vita Vetustissima link Gallus with Columbanus? How did Gallus manage to settle in the Lake Constance region and to found a long-lasting community at the river Steinach? What role did Gallus’s foundation and its cooperation with the policymakers play in the implementation of Frankish or Alemannic power and influence in the Lake Constance region?

After discussing the now famous papyrus fragment discovered in 1979 in Lower Nubia and covered with lines of poetry identified with the elegist Cornelius Gallus, this chapter focuses on reconstructing the material habitus of Latin poetry within the Roman bookroll. Reviewing programmatic passages in Ennius, Plautus, Catullus, Ovid, and especially Horace and Virgil, the chapter shows many of the ways that Roman authors made reference to writing and textual materiality within their work to signal and often to resist intimacy with readers in the world outside of their poems. Focusing on the symbolic importance of the special copies that authors may have had prepared for friends and patrons, known now as “presentation copies,” these readings ultimately help to illuminate the surprising rarity of explicit references to writing in Virgil, an author, like others, exquisitely concerned with managing relationships with elite readers by way of his texts.

In Ars amatoria 1, Ovid claims that women have a stronger tendency to yield to furor because, unlike men, they are unable to regulate their libido. This text shares many features with Propertius 3.19, and Vergil, Ecl. 6, and many hints of Gallus let us suppose that all three poets are responding to Gallus’ Amores. This chapter argues that Ovid considers that the ars rhetorica could be a remedium for the female furor. The expression dare uerba (Her. 21) refers well to what Ovid has planned to do. Considering the intentions of men who dant uerba, it has the meaning of ‘to deceive’. It is literally that Ovid dat uerba to women. He puts into their mouths words with which puellae can decode the artes used by men, analyse their own passion, and try to make men fall or remain in love with them, or…get over their furor.

The Latin poetic output of Late Antiquity contains, in addition to polymetric collections, polymetric poems that combine different meters in a single work. Focusing on this particular development of late Latin poetics, this chapter explores the peculiar characteristics of these individual poems, and inquires into the possible meanings and implications of the recourse to polymetry. Most problematic are the reasons that may have inspired the choice of a given metre. In certain cases, literary genre can make this clear, as happens in Cyprianus Gallus’s heptateuchos and in Ennodius’s epithalamium of Maximus. The examination of polymetric poetry casts a brighter light on the relationship of the authors concerned, both with each other and with the rest of the Latin poetic tradition.

Chapter 2 analyses the depiction of two characters in the first extant books, who in similar ways prefigure Julian’s later role in the narrative. The Caesar Gallus in Book 14 and the usurper Silvanus in Book 15 are both appointees, rivals, and finally victims of Constantius. Significantly Ammianus appears as a character during both episodes, and it is argued that he establishes his presence as a means of effecting a significant shift in the narrative’s presentation of each of Constantius’ rivals. Additionally the chapter proposes that Ammianus draws on the figure of Nero in his characterization of the tyrannical Gallus, and it offers a narratological survey of the Silvanus episode.

The first princeps placed the newly conquered province of Egypt not under a senatorial governor but an equestrian prefect. This constituted a precedent in various respects. Being a new form of provincial administration, the prefecture offered its holders ample opportunity to distinguish themselves, not least in the field of military glory. This chapter addresses the questions of how the first praefecti, C. Cornelius Gallus, L. Aelius Gallus, and P. Petronius, exploited these opportunities and how their efforts were perceived by the princeps and the members of the senatorial elite. The praefectura provides an excellent case study to analyze the mechanisms underlying the development of a new elite in the Augustan era, as well as the ambitions and limitations of its individual members.