J. C. Kaimal and J. J. Finnigan
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195062397
- eISBN:
- 9780197560167
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195062397.003.0004
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Atmospheric Sciences
We start with the simplest of boundary layers, that over an infinite flat surface. Here we can assume the flow to be horizontally homogeneous. Its statistical ...
More
We start with the simplest of boundary layers, that over an infinite flat surface. Here we can assume the flow to be horizontally homogeneous. Its statistical properties are independent of horizontal position; they vary only with height and time. This assumption of horizontal homogeneity is essential in a first approach to understanding a process already complicated by such factors as the earth's rotation, diurnal and spatial variations in surface heating, changing weather conditions, and the coexistence of convective and shear-generated turbulence. It allows us to ignore partial derivatives of mean quantities along the horizontal axes (the advection terms) in the governing equations. Only ocean surfaces come close to the idealized infinite surface. Over land we settle for surfaces that are locally homogeneous, flat plains with short uniform vegetation, where the advection terms are small enough to be negligible. If, in addition to horizontal homogeneity, we can assume stationarity, that the statistical properties of the flow do not change with time, the time derivatives in the governing equations vanish as well. This condition cannot be realized in its strict sense because of the long-term variabilities in the atmosphere. But for most applications we can treat the process as a sequence of steady states. The major simplification it permits is the introduction of time averages that represent the properties of the process and not those of the averaging time. These two conditions clear the way for us to apply fluid dynamical theories and empirical laws developed from wind tunnel studies to the atmosphere's boundary layer. We can see why micrometeorologists in the 1950s and 1960s scoured the countryside for flat uniform sites. The experiments over the plains of Nebraska, Kansas, and Minnesota (USA), Kerang and Hay (Australia), and Tsimliansk (USSR) gave us the first inklings of universal behavior in boundary layer turbulence. Our concept of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and its vertical extent has changed significantly over the last few decades.
Less
We start with the simplest of boundary layers, that over an infinite flat surface. Here we can assume the flow to be horizontally homogeneous. Its statistical properties are independent of horizontal position; they vary only with height and time. This assumption of horizontal homogeneity is essential in a first approach to understanding a process already complicated by such factors as the earth's rotation, diurnal and spatial variations in surface heating, changing weather conditions, and the coexistence of convective and shear-generated turbulence. It allows us to ignore partial derivatives of mean quantities along the horizontal axes (the advection terms) in the governing equations. Only ocean surfaces come close to the idealized infinite surface. Over land we settle for surfaces that are locally homogeneous, flat plains with short uniform vegetation, where the advection terms are small enough to be negligible. If, in addition to horizontal homogeneity, we can assume stationarity, that the statistical properties of the flow do not change with time, the time derivatives in the governing equations vanish as well. This condition cannot be realized in its strict sense because of the long-term variabilities in the atmosphere. But for most applications we can treat the process as a sequence of steady states. The major simplification it permits is the introduction of time averages that represent the properties of the process and not those of the averaging time. These two conditions clear the way for us to apply fluid dynamical theories and empirical laws developed from wind tunnel studies to the atmosphere's boundary layer. We can see why micrometeorologists in the 1950s and 1960s scoured the countryside for flat uniform sites. The experiments over the plains of Nebraska, Kansas, and Minnesota (USA), Kerang and Hay (Australia), and Tsimliansk (USSR) gave us the first inklings of universal behavior in boundary layer turbulence. Our concept of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and its vertical extent has changed significantly over the last few decades.
Martin Clayton, Byron Dueck, and Laura Leante (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199811328
- eISBN:
- 9780199369539
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199811328.001.0001
- Subject:
- Music, Ethnomusicology, World Music, Performing Practice/Studies
Experience and meaning in music performance is a multi-authored work that both draws on and contributes to current debates in a wide range of disciplines, including ethnomusicology, musicology, ...
More
Experience and meaning in music performance is a multi-authored work that both draws on and contributes to current debates in a wide range of disciplines, including ethnomusicology, musicology, psychology, cognitive science and several other fields The eight distinct contributions focus in different ways on its three main themes: Experience, Meaning and Performance. Performance defines the principal object of study as the moment of production—of sound or of meaning—rather than on music as model, ideal or product. Experience focuses attention away from the ideal and the ideological and towards the phenomenal: what people actually do, and what they feel, while engaging in music. Meaning, too, is understood in a broad sense. On one hand, authors examine actions that are musically successful and socially consequential, but whose initial ‘meaning’ owes little to linguistic mediation. On the other hand, the authors retain a place for how discourse shapes music: for what people try to put into a performance, and what they think they (and others) ought to get out of it. Other themes impart cut across those of the volume’s title. Three chapters examine gesture and nonverbal forms of communication, illustrating how experiences of listening, performing and musical collaboration are shaped by movement and gesture. Another trio of essays focuses on elements of temporal organisation in music, particularly pulse, rhythmic patterning, metre and groove. These chapters explore how musicians from different traditions entrain to regular patterns of pulsation in music.Less
Experience and meaning in music performance is a multi-authored work that both draws on and contributes to current debates in a wide range of disciplines, including ethnomusicology, musicology, psychology, cognitive science and several other fields The eight distinct contributions focus in different ways on its three main themes: Experience, Meaning and Performance. Performance defines the principal object of study as the moment of production—of sound or of meaning—rather than on music as model, ideal or product. Experience focuses attention away from the ideal and the ideological and towards the phenomenal: what people actually do, and what they feel, while engaging in music. Meaning, too, is understood in a broad sense. On one hand, authors examine actions that are musically successful and socially consequential, but whose initial ‘meaning’ owes little to linguistic mediation. On the other hand, the authors retain a place for how discourse shapes music: for what people try to put into a performance, and what they think they (and others) ought to get out of it. Other themes impart cut across those of the volume’s title. Three chapters examine gesture and nonverbal forms of communication, illustrating how experiences of listening, performing and musical collaboration are shaped by movement and gesture. Another trio of essays focuses on elements of temporal organisation in music, particularly pulse, rhythmic patterning, metre and groove. These chapters explore how musicians from different traditions entrain to regular patterns of pulsation in music.
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199990825
- eISBN:
- 9780199357871
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199990825.003.0005
- Subject:
- Music, Psychology of Music
A surprising amount of repetition characterizes not only individual musical pieces, but also our behaviors in relation to them. That we revisit the same pieces a remarkable number of times is ...
More
A surprising amount of repetition characterizes not only individual musical pieces, but also our behaviors in relation to them. That we revisit the same pieces a remarkable number of times is illustrated not just by experimental documentation, but also by casual glances at the playlists of top-40 radio stations, or at the statistics for iTunes track plays. This chapter chronicles the science of repeated exposures, examining the large literature on familiarity in music and other domains, including Zajonc’s mere exposure and subsequent theories related to the Wundt curve. It argues on the one hand that the pleasure of musical relistenings illuminates important differences between musical and linguistic communication, and on the other hand that the pleasure of musical relistenings is only superficially similar to the pleasure of revisiting a favorite chocolate until the box is gone. A systematic investigation of this comparison results in new perspectives on the nature of musical pleasure itself.Less
A surprising amount of repetition characterizes not only individual musical pieces, but also our behaviors in relation to them. That we revisit the same pieces a remarkable number of times is illustrated not just by experimental documentation, but also by casual glances at the playlists of top-40 radio stations, or at the statistics for iTunes track plays. This chapter chronicles the science of repeated exposures, examining the large literature on familiarity in music and other domains, including Zajonc’s mere exposure and subsequent theories related to the Wundt curve. It argues on the one hand that the pleasure of musical relistenings illuminates important differences between musical and linguistic communication, and on the other hand that the pleasure of musical relistenings is only superficially similar to the pleasure of revisiting a favorite chocolate until the box is gone. A systematic investigation of this comparison results in new perspectives on the nature of musical pleasure itself.
Klaus R. Scherer and Eduardo Coutinho
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- September 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199654888
- eISBN:
- 9780191762871
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654888.003.0010
- Subject:
- Psychology, Music Psychology, Social Psychology
In this chapter we propose an integrated framework that links the perception and cognition of music to the production of emotion by means of psychobiological pathways recruiting various subsystems of ...
More
In this chapter we propose an integrated framework that links the perception and cognition of music to the production of emotion by means of psychobiological pathways recruiting various subsystems of the central and autonomous nervous systems. These pathways (which we call routes) are Appraisal, Memory, Entrainment, Empathy, and Contagion, and they permit to describe the nature and substrate of a wide variety of emotional responses to music. We focus on music characteristics, more precisely the musical structure and performance variables, as the determinant factors of emotional indication, while considering a variety of possible modulatory effects related to listener characteristics and states, the performer, and the listening context.Less
In this chapter we propose an integrated framework that links the perception and cognition of music to the production of emotion by means of psychobiological pathways recruiting various subsystems of the central and autonomous nervous systems. These pathways (which we call routes) are Appraisal, Memory, Entrainment, Empathy, and Contagion, and they permit to describe the nature and substrate of a wide variety of emotional responses to music. We focus on music characteristics, more precisely the musical structure and performance variables, as the determinant factors of emotional indication, while considering a variety of possible modulatory effects related to listener characteristics and states, the performer, and the listening context.
Martin Clayton, Byron Dueck, and Laura Leante
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199811328
- eISBN:
- 9780199369539
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199811328.003.0001
- Subject:
- Music, Ethnomusicology, World Music, Performing Practice/Studies
This chapter introduces the co-authored volume Experience and Meaning in Music Performance. The three key terms are introduced and defined alongside an explanation of the overall aims and methods of ...
More
This chapter introduces the co-authored volume Experience and Meaning in Music Performance. The three key terms are introduced and defined alongside an explanation of the overall aims and methods of the project. Two themes that cut across each of these are delineated: entrainment and gesture; in the following section, some theoretical considerations concerning universal and culturally specific ways of considering the role of the body, and the relationship between meaning and embodiment, are presented. The chapter concludes with discussion of methodologies employed by authors within the framework of the project.Less
This chapter introduces the co-authored volume Experience and Meaning in Music Performance. The three key terms are introduced and defined alongside an explanation of the overall aims and methods of the project. Two themes that cut across each of these are delineated: entrainment and gesture; in the following section, some theoretical considerations concerning universal and culturally specific ways of considering the role of the body, and the relationship between meaning and embodiment, are presented. The chapter concludes with discussion of methodologies employed by authors within the framework of the project.
Martin Clayton
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199811328
- eISBN:
- 9780199369539
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199811328.003.0002
- Subject:
- Music, Ethnomusicology, World Music, Performing Practice/Studies
This chapter examines relationships between the empirical study of musical entrainment and an ethnographic research model. Moving beyond a description of the concept of entrainment (roughly speaking, ...
More
This chapter examines relationships between the empirical study of musical entrainment and an ethnographic research model. Moving beyond a description of the concept of entrainment (roughly speaking, synchronisation), its wider context—that is, dynamical systems theory—is introduced, and the implications of viewing musical ensembles as complex systems discussed. Such an approach presents a challenge to many proponents of an interpretative, humanistic approach who see scientific approaches as essentially reductionist: this critique is addressed head-on with a refutation of the notion that all scientific method is necessarily reductionist. The chapter argues that in order to understand musical interactions it is important to bring the unique insights of a dynamical systems approach into a productive dialogue with an ethnographic and interpretative framework alert to local contexts and meanings.Less
This chapter examines relationships between the empirical study of musical entrainment and an ethnographic research model. Moving beyond a description of the concept of entrainment (roughly speaking, synchronisation), its wider context—that is, dynamical systems theory—is introduced, and the implications of viewing musical ensembles as complex systems discussed. Such an approach presents a challenge to many proponents of an interpretative, humanistic approach who see scientific approaches as essentially reductionist: this critique is addressed head-on with a refutation of the notion that all scientific method is necessarily reductionist. The chapter argues that in order to understand musical interactions it is important to bring the unique insights of a dynamical systems approach into a productive dialogue with an ethnographic and interpretative framework alert to local contexts and meanings.
Mark Doffman
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199811328
- eISBN:
- 9780199369539
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199811328.003.0004
- Subject:
- Music, Ethnomusicology, World Music, Performing Practice/Studies
This chapter offers an empirical examination of the nature of groove in jazz performance. By triangulating detailed timing data taken from the live performance by a jazz trio with the reflections of ...
More
This chapter offers an empirical examination of the nature of groove in jazz performance. By triangulating detailed timing data taken from the live performance by a jazz trio with the reflections of the musicians on their playing together, the study offers a rich understanding of temporal praxis and its meanings for musicians. Drawing on entrainment theory and the notion of cultural models from cognitive anthropology, the chapter looks beyond the dichotomy of structure and process, and explores how mental structures and sensori-motor processes interact in the shaping of shared musical time.Less
This chapter offers an empirical examination of the nature of groove in jazz performance. By triangulating detailed timing data taken from the live performance by a jazz trio with the reflections of the musicians on their playing together, the study offers a rich understanding of temporal praxis and its meanings for musicians. Drawing on entrainment theory and the notion of cultural models from cognitive anthropology, the chapter looks beyond the dichotomy of structure and process, and explores how mental structures and sensori-motor processes interact in the shaping of shared musical time.