Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
In conflict-affected regions, delays in international response can have life or death consequences. The speed with which international organizations react to crises affects the prospects for ...
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In conflict-affected regions, delays in international response can have life or death consequences. The speed with which international organizations react to crises affects the prospects for communities to reestablish peace. Why, then, do some international organizations take longer than others to answer calls for intervention? To answer this question and explore options for reform, this book builds on an original database on response rates and interview evidence from 50 ambassadors across four leading organizations (AU, EU, OAS, and OSCE). The explanation for variation in speed ultimately lies in core differences in institutional cultures across organizations. Although wealth and capabilities can strengthen a peace operation, it is the unspoken rules and social networks at organizations’ peace and security committees that dictate the pace with which an operation is established. This book offers a first analysis of the timeliness of international organizations in crisis response.Less
In conflict-affected regions, delays in international response can have life or death consequences. The speed with which international organizations react to crises affects the prospects for communities to reestablish peace. Why, then, do some international organizations take longer than others to answer calls for intervention? To answer this question and explore options for reform, this book builds on an original database on response rates and interview evidence from 50 ambassadors across four leading organizations (AU, EU, OAS, and OSCE). The explanation for variation in speed ultimately lies in core differences in institutional cultures across organizations. Although wealth and capabilities can strengthen a peace operation, it is the unspoken rules and social networks at organizations’ peace and security committees that dictate the pace with which an operation is established. This book offers a first analysis of the timeliness of international organizations in crisis response.
Peter Sterling and Simon Laughlin
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780262028707
- eISBN:
- 9780262327312
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262028707.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Research and Theory
The human brain is far smarter than a supercomputer but requires 100,000-fold less energy and space. Such efficient information processing is governed by ten principles of design. These apply to the ...
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The human brain is far smarter than a supercomputer but requires 100,000-fold less energy and space. Such efficient information processing is governed by ten principles of design. These apply to the whole brain across the full range of spatial and temporal scales, and to the brains of all species. The principles are: compute with chemistry; compute directly with analog primitives; combine analog and pulsatile processing; code sparsely; send only what information is needed for a particular task; transmit information at the lowest acceptable rate; minimize wire; make neural components irreducibly small; complicate; adapt and match, learn and forget. This approach does not explain the “hows” of brain design but does explain many of the “whys”. For example, it explains why certain signals are sent via hormones and others via nerves; why neural wires are mostly thin with only a few thick; why synapses differ in size, number and reliability according to the circuit that they serve; why every neuron type has a characteristic shape; why the cerebral cortex is parceled into different areas and different layers; why learning couples to forgetting. “Whys” explained on nearly every page. Given the explanatory power of ten principles, we should search for more.Less
The human brain is far smarter than a supercomputer but requires 100,000-fold less energy and space. Such efficient information processing is governed by ten principles of design. These apply to the whole brain across the full range of spatial and temporal scales, and to the brains of all species. The principles are: compute with chemistry; compute directly with analog primitives; combine analog and pulsatile processing; code sparsely; send only what information is needed for a particular task; transmit information at the lowest acceptable rate; minimize wire; make neural components irreducibly small; complicate; adapt and match, learn and forget. This approach does not explain the “hows” of brain design but does explain many of the “whys”. For example, it explains why certain signals are sent via hormones and others via nerves; why neural wires are mostly thin with only a few thick; why synapses differ in size, number and reliability according to the circuit that they serve; why every neuron type has a characteristic shape; why the cerebral cortex is parceled into different areas and different layers; why learning couples to forgetting. “Whys” explained on nearly every page. Given the explanatory power of ten principles, we should search for more.
Benjamin René Jordan
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9781469627656
- eISBN:
- 9781469627670
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469627656.001.0001
- Subject:
- Sociology, Gender and Sexuality
Contrary to works arguing that both Boy Scouting and mainstream American manhood emphasized primitive virility and martial aggression in the early twentieth century, this book demonstrates that the ...
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Contrary to works arguing that both Boy Scouting and mainstream American manhood emphasized primitive virility and martial aggression in the early twentieth century, this book demonstrates that the Boy Scouts of America widely promulgated a popular new construct of “modern manhood.” It combined nineteenth century men's virtues such as self-control and a diligent work ethic with the scientific efficiency, expert management, and hierarchical loyalty that boys in their adolescence and men needed to adapt to a rapidly urbanizing and industrializing society. Scout leaders utilized a scientific, constructive engagement with nature and natural resource conservation to teach members such values, and to partner with reformers and businessmen to advance a modern vision of “practical citizenship” and nonpartisan service leadership. The book analyzes a wealth of Scout texts and images, policy and membership debates, and local practices as well as surveys and memoirs of boys and leaders reflecting on their experiences in the 1910s and 1920s. By insisting that modern manhood and practical citizenship represented universal values while actively incorporating European immigrant Catholics, Jews, and labor unionists, BSA administrators helped redraw the bounds of mainstream American manhood and leading citizenship to include light-skinned, working class urban dwellers and corporate-industrial employees while marginalizing traditional rural farmers of all ethnicities.Less
Contrary to works arguing that both Boy Scouting and mainstream American manhood emphasized primitive virility and martial aggression in the early twentieth century, this book demonstrates that the Boy Scouts of America widely promulgated a popular new construct of “modern manhood.” It combined nineteenth century men's virtues such as self-control and a diligent work ethic with the scientific efficiency, expert management, and hierarchical loyalty that boys in their adolescence and men needed to adapt to a rapidly urbanizing and industrializing society. Scout leaders utilized a scientific, constructive engagement with nature and natural resource conservation to teach members such values, and to partner with reformers and businessmen to advance a modern vision of “practical citizenship” and nonpartisan service leadership. The book analyzes a wealth of Scout texts and images, policy and membership debates, and local practices as well as surveys and memoirs of boys and leaders reflecting on their experiences in the 1910s and 1920s. By insisting that modern manhood and practical citizenship represented universal values while actively incorporating European immigrant Catholics, Jews, and labor unionists, BSA administrators helped redraw the bounds of mainstream American manhood and leading citizenship to include light-skinned, working class urban dwellers and corporate-industrial employees while marginalizing traditional rural farmers of all ethnicities.
Ramprasad Sengupta
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- May 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780198081654
- eISBN:
- 9780199082407
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198081654.003.0012
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
The chapter focuses on the analysis of energy resource balance and the ecological limits on energy resources with special reference to the oil crisis in both the global and the Indian context. It ...
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The chapter focuses on the analysis of energy resource balance and the ecological limits on energy resources with special reference to the oil crisis in both the global and the Indian context. It discusses the roles of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, hydro resources, renewables like biomass, bioliquids and other aboitic renewables particularly wind and solar energy resources in providing the energy security for India with some sectorwise details as well as their implications in respect of environmental degradation over the full life cycle of their respective uses. The chapter further discusses the economic effects of the ecological limits as expressed in the forms of resource scarcity and environmental pollution. It then reviews the trend of past energy and carbon efficiency of India and the projections of the same in future as per the study of the expert group of the planning commission and discusses their policy implicationsLess
The chapter focuses on the analysis of energy resource balance and the ecological limits on energy resources with special reference to the oil crisis in both the global and the Indian context. It discusses the roles of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, hydro resources, renewables like biomass, bioliquids and other aboitic renewables particularly wind and solar energy resources in providing the energy security for India with some sectorwise details as well as their implications in respect of environmental degradation over the full life cycle of their respective uses. The chapter further discusses the economic effects of the ecological limits as expressed in the forms of resource scarcity and environmental pollution. It then reviews the trend of past energy and carbon efficiency of India and the projections of the same in future as per the study of the expert group of the planning commission and discusses their policy implications
Assaf Razin
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780262028592
- eISBN:
- 9780262327701
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262028592.003.0010
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, International
The key mechanisms through which information frictions affect the composition and the volatility of international capital flows are market based. Foreign direct investors get more efficient outcomes ...
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The key mechanisms through which information frictions affect the composition and the volatility of international capital flows are market based. Foreign direct investors get more efficient outcomes than foreign portfolio investors because the former have more direct control over management. Thus, they are able to make a better-informed decision of how to run the business. However, the better information mires FDI investors with the “lemons” problem: If the investors’ liquidity dries up, forcing the investors to sell off foreign subsidiaries, market participants would not know whether the subsidiary is liquidated because of the investors’ liquidity problems or because of bad inside information about the profitability of the subsidiary. Consequently, the market will place a discount on assets sold by an FDI investor, who has the inside information, unlike the FPI investor. Thus, the liquidated stock of an FDI investor is sold at a discount. High-liquidity-risk investors opt for FPI investment, whereas low-liquidity-risk investors opt for FDI investment.Less
The key mechanisms through which information frictions affect the composition and the volatility of international capital flows are market based. Foreign direct investors get more efficient outcomes than foreign portfolio investors because the former have more direct control over management. Thus, they are able to make a better-informed decision of how to run the business. However, the better information mires FDI investors with the “lemons” problem: If the investors’ liquidity dries up, forcing the investors to sell off foreign subsidiaries, market participants would not know whether the subsidiary is liquidated because of the investors’ liquidity problems or because of bad inside information about the profitability of the subsidiary. Consequently, the market will place a discount on assets sold by an FDI investor, who has the inside information, unlike the FPI investor. Thus, the liquidated stock of an FDI investor is sold at a discount. High-liquidity-risk investors opt for FPI investment, whereas low-liquidity-risk investors opt for FDI investment.
Jakob Riiskjaer Nygård
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- May 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780804785259
- eISBN:
- 9780804788571
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804785259.003.0006
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Innovation
The first of a set of cases, this examination of the history of Danish energy policy shows that a classic green spiral effect has led over time to the decoupling of emissions and economic growth. ...
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The first of a set of cases, this examination of the history of Danish energy policy shows that a classic green spiral effect has led over time to the decoupling of emissions and economic growth. This spiral begins with Denmark’s response to the oil crisis of the 1970s, which led to energy security policies that shifted commercial and industrial infrastructure toward high energy efficiency, developed a thriving wind energy industry, and encouraged a broad grass-roots constituency that benefited from wind generation. These shifts in interest fed back into policymaking. Ultimately, policy-industry feedback over time has led to a paradigmatic shift in Denmark’s energy industry and policy. Denmark’s energy industry now sees its own interests as invested in, not threatened by, green policy. For example, DONG Energy is pulling back from investment in coal power and expects to derive future growth from low-carbon investments and green regulation.Less
The first of a set of cases, this examination of the history of Danish energy policy shows that a classic green spiral effect has led over time to the decoupling of emissions and economic growth. This spiral begins with Denmark’s response to the oil crisis of the 1970s, which led to energy security policies that shifted commercial and industrial infrastructure toward high energy efficiency, developed a thriving wind energy industry, and encouraged a broad grass-roots constituency that benefited from wind generation. These shifts in interest fed back into policymaking. Ultimately, policy-industry feedback over time has led to a paradigmatic shift in Denmark’s energy industry and policy. Denmark’s energy industry now sees its own interests as invested in, not threatened by, green policy. For example, DONG Energy is pulling back from investment in coal power and expects to derive future growth from low-carbon investments and green regulation.
David Nasaw
- Published in print:
- 1979
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195025293
- eISBN:
- 9780197559956
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195025293.003.0010
- Subject:
- Education, History of Education
There was never the remotest possibility that the reformers could have succeeded in their ultimate objective of enrolling all the children of the community ...
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There was never the remotest possibility that the reformers could have succeeded in their ultimate objective of enrolling all the children of the community in their common schools. Even if the funds had been forthcoming and generous enough to build schools as grand as palaces, the poor would not have been able to send their children to them—and not because they did not understand the value of an education. As Stephen Thernstrom has written regarding the situation of the poor and working parents of Newburyport, no matter how eloquently Horace Mann might extol the benefits of a common schooling, “education for their children was simply a luxury the family could not afford.” Universal schooling—for the poor as for the prosperous— would not be attained within the reformers’ lifetimes. It was contingent on something the reformers could not produce: the acceptance of child labor regulation by the employers themselves. Without this acceptance—based on the recognition that unregulated child labor was destroying workers before they reached their productive prime—no child labor or compulsory schooling legislation could produce widespread common school enrollment. Universal common school enrollment was further dependent on other factors beyond the capacity of the reformers to effect. In the West and in rural areas of the Northeast, there could be no common schooling at all until the population was dense enough to support a school within commuting distance of each household. In the South, universal schooling was unthinkable as long as slavery was maintained. As we have seen in preceding chapters, while there appeared to be widespread agreement among Americans on the importance of schooling for their children, there was no consensus on the shape that schooling should take. There were differences of opinion over how the schools should be funded; over what form religious instruction should take; and over the qualifications for schoolmasters, the facilities for schoolhouses, the contents and objectives of school books, and the proper language of classroom instruction. In all these areas of dispute, the reformers forced their consensus on local communities not through the power of their arguments so much as through the power of their political coalitions.
Less
There was never the remotest possibility that the reformers could have succeeded in their ultimate objective of enrolling all the children of the community in their common schools. Even if the funds had been forthcoming and generous enough to build schools as grand as palaces, the poor would not have been able to send their children to them—and not because they did not understand the value of an education. As Stephen Thernstrom has written regarding the situation of the poor and working parents of Newburyport, no matter how eloquently Horace Mann might extol the benefits of a common schooling, “education for their children was simply a luxury the family could not afford.” Universal schooling—for the poor as for the prosperous— would not be attained within the reformers’ lifetimes. It was contingent on something the reformers could not produce: the acceptance of child labor regulation by the employers themselves. Without this acceptance—based on the recognition that unregulated child labor was destroying workers before they reached their productive prime—no child labor or compulsory schooling legislation could produce widespread common school enrollment. Universal common school enrollment was further dependent on other factors beyond the capacity of the reformers to effect. In the West and in rural areas of the Northeast, there could be no common schooling at all until the population was dense enough to support a school within commuting distance of each household. In the South, universal schooling was unthinkable as long as slavery was maintained. As we have seen in preceding chapters, while there appeared to be widespread agreement among Americans on the importance of schooling for their children, there was no consensus on the shape that schooling should take. There were differences of opinion over how the schools should be funded; over what form religious instruction should take; and over the qualifications for schoolmasters, the facilities for schoolhouses, the contents and objectives of school books, and the proper language of classroom instruction. In all these areas of dispute, the reformers forced their consensus on local communities not through the power of their arguments so much as through the power of their political coalitions.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
This chapter offers a discussion of the relevance of international organizations’ efficiency in crisis response. It is framed in broader scholarly and policy debates on the effectiveness of peace ...
More
This chapter offers a discussion of the relevance of international organizations’ efficiency in crisis response. It is framed in broader scholarly and policy debates on the effectiveness of peace operations. The chapter introduces the book’s argument that differences across organizations’ informal norms and networks can explain variation in organizations’ response rates in the context of conflict. This focus on informal factors challenges traditional explanations of decision-making in international organizations because they concentrate on the interests of individual member states. In an overview of the methodology, the author describes the use of elite interviews and discourse analysis to gain insider perspectives on decision-making from those actors directly involved in security negotiations. Survey-based interviews were specifically conducted with 50 ambassadors and more staff from four international organizations (the AU, EU, OAS, and OSCE). Following a discussion on how response rates can be measured, the subsequent section presents an original database of response rates. Finally, a sociological institutionalist explanation sheds light on why a more affluent organization, such as the EU, might prove more efficient than those with fewer resources and capabilities.Less
This chapter offers a discussion of the relevance of international organizations’ efficiency in crisis response. It is framed in broader scholarly and policy debates on the effectiveness of peace operations. The chapter introduces the book’s argument that differences across organizations’ informal norms and networks can explain variation in organizations’ response rates in the context of conflict. This focus on informal factors challenges traditional explanations of decision-making in international organizations because they concentrate on the interests of individual member states. In an overview of the methodology, the author describes the use of elite interviews and discourse analysis to gain insider perspectives on decision-making from those actors directly involved in security negotiations. Survey-based interviews were specifically conducted with 50 ambassadors and more staff from four international organizations (the AU, EU, OAS, and OSCE). Following a discussion on how response rates can be measured, the subsequent section presents an original database of response rates. Finally, a sociological institutionalist explanation sheds light on why a more affluent organization, such as the EU, might prove more efficient than those with fewer resources and capabilities.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
This chapter focuses on the impact of efficiency on conflict-affected populations and on the effectiveness of interventions. It details the conditions under which speed of response enhances prospects ...
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This chapter focuses on the impact of efficiency on conflict-affected populations and on the effectiveness of interventions. It details the conditions under which speed of response enhances prospects for sustainable peace, and it places the discussion on speed in an international security context. Organizations have thus far failed in their efforts to develop and employ rapid response mechanisms. Instead, control over speed of response remains in the hands of the member states driving consensus-based decisions to react. The chapter provides a means for measuring the efficiency involved in the planning and operationalizing of these decisions. It then introduces an original database on response rate variation across four international organizations. In an analysis of the response rates data, the chapter elucidates core distinctions between the record of the European Union and the record of the African Union, OAS, and OSCE. From membership size to strength of capabilities, potential reasons for the variation in speed are assessed but fail to explain why the EU would be slower to react to crises. State-based theories of international relations prove equally insufficient in explaining the phenomenon. This suggests the need for an entirely different explanation, which is outlined in the subsequent chapter.Less
This chapter focuses on the impact of efficiency on conflict-affected populations and on the effectiveness of interventions. It details the conditions under which speed of response enhances prospects for sustainable peace, and it places the discussion on speed in an international security context. Organizations have thus far failed in their efforts to develop and employ rapid response mechanisms. Instead, control over speed of response remains in the hands of the member states driving consensus-based decisions to react. The chapter provides a means for measuring the efficiency involved in the planning and operationalizing of these decisions. It then introduces an original database on response rate variation across four international organizations. In an analysis of the response rates data, the chapter elucidates core distinctions between the record of the European Union and the record of the African Union, OAS, and OSCE. From membership size to strength of capabilities, potential reasons for the variation in speed are assessed but fail to explain why the EU would be slower to react to crises. State-based theories of international relations prove equally insufficient in explaining the phenomenon. This suggests the need for an entirely different explanation, which is outlined in the subsequent chapter.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0003
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
This chapter provides an introduction to the informal level of decision-making and presents the book’s central argument. That is, the ways in which actors interact and negotiate within international ...
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This chapter provides an introduction to the informal level of decision-making and presents the book’s central argument. That is, the ways in which actors interact and negotiate within international organizations can explain why some find consensus more quickly than others. The chapter adopts sociological institutionalism as a theoretical framework and applies it to explain how informal norms and informal relations among key actors affect speed of response. The text distinguishes between informal and formal modes of decision-making and the conditions under which informality can facilitate the building of consensus and, ultimately, quicker multilateral responses to crises. As the argument is unpacked, interpersonal trust is identified as a key mechanism. The chapter offers two final and detailed sections: one providing the theoretical argument behind the role of informal norms and one providing the theoretical argument behind the role of informal relations.Less
This chapter provides an introduction to the informal level of decision-making and presents the book’s central argument. That is, the ways in which actors interact and negotiate within international organizations can explain why some find consensus more quickly than others. The chapter adopts sociological institutionalism as a theoretical framework and applies it to explain how informal norms and informal relations among key actors affect speed of response. The text distinguishes between informal and formal modes of decision-making and the conditions under which informality can facilitate the building of consensus and, ultimately, quicker multilateral responses to crises. As the argument is unpacked, interpersonal trust is identified as a key mechanism. The chapter offers two final and detailed sections: one providing the theoretical argument behind the role of informal norms and one providing the theoretical argument behind the role of informal relations.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
This chapter offers a typology of decision-making on crisis response across four international organizations. However, unlike previous scholarship, this research focuses on how decisions are taken in ...
More
This chapter offers a typology of decision-making on crisis response across four international organizations. However, unlike previous scholarship, this research focuses on how decisions are taken in practice rather than the formal rules themselves. The chapter also discusses the interactions between the existing formal rules and the informal norms that develop around them and that guide actors’ behavior. The formal institutional design of an organization sets the tone for how such informal norms will be institutionalized. To measure institutional differences, the author focuses on four key metrics: environment, socialization, friendships, and perceived culture. These factors are reflected in the survey questions asked of staff and ambassadors involved in the peace and security committees of four international organizations. The chapter then presents the results of the survey data in conjunction with scholarly data. Through the use of original and comprehensive analyses, the chapter is able to systematically explain variation in institutional culture across the peace and security committees of each organization. The typology’s descriptions of different regional styles of crisis response encompass formal rules, informal norms, and relevant anecdotes of the contentious deliberations.Less
This chapter offers a typology of decision-making on crisis response across four international organizations. However, unlike previous scholarship, this research focuses on how decisions are taken in practice rather than the formal rules themselves. The chapter also discusses the interactions between the existing formal rules and the informal norms that develop around them and that guide actors’ behavior. The formal institutional design of an organization sets the tone for how such informal norms will be institutionalized. To measure institutional differences, the author focuses on four key metrics: environment, socialization, friendships, and perceived culture. These factors are reflected in the survey questions asked of staff and ambassadors involved in the peace and security committees of four international organizations. The chapter then presents the results of the survey data in conjunction with scholarly data. Through the use of original and comprehensive analyses, the chapter is able to systematically explain variation in institutional culture across the peace and security committees of each organization. The typology’s descriptions of different regional styles of crisis response encompass formal rules, informal norms, and relevant anecdotes of the contentious deliberations.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
Building on evidence presented in the previous chapter, this chapter makes the case that international organizations with informal institutional cultures react more rapidly than those organizations ...
More
Building on evidence presented in the previous chapter, this chapter makes the case that international organizations with informal institutional cultures react more rapidly than those organizations with formal institutional cultures. The chapter explains positive and negative impacts of informal norms on efficiency through the application of a sociological institutionalist theory of bureaucratic dysfunction, adapted from scholarship by Barnett and Finnemore. Individual norms are identified and categorized. The chapter emphasizes differences regarding how information is shared at the European Union Political and Security Committee in contrast to how it is at similar committees at other organizations. For each of four international organizations, the author describes and illustrates the implementation of both positive and negative norms.Less
Building on evidence presented in the previous chapter, this chapter makes the case that international organizations with informal institutional cultures react more rapidly than those organizations with formal institutional cultures. The chapter explains positive and negative impacts of informal norms on efficiency through the application of a sociological institutionalist theory of bureaucratic dysfunction, adapted from scholarship by Barnett and Finnemore. Individual norms are identified and categorized. The chapter emphasizes differences regarding how information is shared at the European Union Political and Security Committee in contrast to how it is at similar committees at other organizations. For each of four international organizations, the author describes and illustrates the implementation of both positive and negative norms.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
Building on evidence presented in Chapter 5, this chapter explains the second part of the book’s argument about institutional culture. Specifically, a climate of positive interpersonal relations ...
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Building on evidence presented in Chapter 5, this chapter explains the second part of the book’s argument about institutional culture. Specifically, a climate of positive interpersonal relations among actors at international organizations helps to speed up their responses to crises. Equally, negative relations can lead to slower responses. The chapter begins by giving evidence that the majority of critical decision-making occurs outside of formal channels through bilateral informal negotiations or through multilateral social networks. It then applies Principal-Agent Theory to explain the process of ambassadors gaining trust at their respective peace and security committees and to explain the role of information asymmetries among ambassadors and their capitals. In detail, the chapter traces the process of establishing positive interpersonal relations and the critical role that trust plays in access to critical information. After information is shared, ties are strengthened and consensus can be more easily achieved. After having examined the role of interpersonal relations in organization efficiency, the chapter proceeds to discuss how social networks among groups of actors within international organizations affect speed of response. The author categorizes and explores dominant types of networks observed across organizations and concludes that both informal relations and informal networks can positively ( negatively) affect speed of response.Less
Building on evidence presented in Chapter 5, this chapter explains the second part of the book’s argument about institutional culture. Specifically, a climate of positive interpersonal relations among actors at international organizations helps to speed up their responses to crises. Equally, negative relations can lead to slower responses. The chapter begins by giving evidence that the majority of critical decision-making occurs outside of formal channels through bilateral informal negotiations or through multilateral social networks. It then applies Principal-Agent Theory to explain the process of ambassadors gaining trust at their respective peace and security committees and to explain the role of information asymmetries among ambassadors and their capitals. In detail, the chapter traces the process of establishing positive interpersonal relations and the critical role that trust plays in access to critical information. After information is shared, ties are strengthened and consensus can be more easily achieved. After having examined the role of interpersonal relations in organization efficiency, the chapter proceeds to discuss how social networks among groups of actors within international organizations affect speed of response. The author categorizes and explores dominant types of networks observed across organizations and concludes that both informal relations and informal networks can positively ( negatively) affect speed of response.
Heidi Hardt
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199337118
- eISBN:
- 9780199356546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337118.003.0008
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics, Comparative Politics
This chapter offers a summary of the book’s key findings and points to venues for future research. It reviews the central argument that differences in institutional culture explain why some ...
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This chapter offers a summary of the book’s key findings and points to venues for future research. It reviews the central argument that differences in institutional culture explain why some international organizations respond more quickly than others to demands for intervention. It also revisits the evidence that two relevant aspects of institutional culture—informal norms and informal relations—have been shown to influence rates of response. With respect to future directions for research, the chapter calls for more studies on the informal level of decision-making and planning that occurs at international organizations. It also calls for further research on the subject of “rapid response.” The second part of the chapter identifies key policy recommendations for institutional reform and examines what steps might be needed to see such reforms become reality. The recommendations are explained in detail with reference, where possible, to practical examples such as those from the United Nations.Less
This chapter offers a summary of the book’s key findings and points to venues for future research. It reviews the central argument that differences in institutional culture explain why some international organizations respond more quickly than others to demands for intervention. It also revisits the evidence that two relevant aspects of institutional culture—informal norms and informal relations—have been shown to influence rates of response. With respect to future directions for research, the chapter calls for more studies on the informal level of decision-making and planning that occurs at international organizations. It also calls for further research on the subject of “rapid response.” The second part of the chapter identifies key policy recommendations for institutional reform and examines what steps might be needed to see such reforms become reality. The recommendations are explained in detail with reference, where possible, to practical examples such as those from the United Nations.
Steven Kim
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195060171
- eISBN:
- 9780197560136
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195060171.003.0007
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction
The dictionary defines a factor as “something that actively contributes to the production of a result.” A number of factors may be attributed to the creative process ...
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The dictionary defines a factor as “something that actively contributes to the production of a result.” A number of factors may be attributed to the creative process and its final product. These factors are purpose, diversity, relationships, imagery, and externalization. The ingredients of creativity seem to be the same for diverse domains, from the arts to the sciences and social studies. The factors of creativity are depicted in Figure 4.1. These parameters refer to the purpose of the project, plus four others identified by diversity, relationships, imagery, and externalization. The second and third factors define the structure of the problem and its solution, while the last two relate to representation issues for generating the solution and expressing it in some form. The creative factors are listed in Table 4.1, along with their defining characteristics and prescriptive implications. The operational implications are described for both the human problem solver, as well as for the computer system that might be developed to assist in this task. For example, imagery relates to the development of ideas through sensory mechanisms, whether in actuality or in conception. The prescriptive implication is to generate a series of images in various formats, whether pictorial, auditory, or tactile. Of these, the most powerful vehicle is the visual image which can simultaneously represent numerous objects and their relationships. The operational implication for a computer-based system is a rich store of icons or pictorial images that may be depicted on color screens using versatile graphic techniques. The problem to be resolved defines the purpose of the creative process. The factor of purpose involves the distillation of a problem into its essential elements. This involves the identification of critical attributes and the elimination of extraneous features. For millennia people had yearned to fly. The existence of birds was proof that flight was possible. Man’s straightforward approach to achieving flight was to imitate aviary shapes and motions, especially wings and their flapping. But birds have functional requirements other than airborne motion, such as feeding, fleeing, and reproduction. It was not until the peripheral activities such as wing-flapping were ignored, that man could design a machine allowing him to attain active flight.
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The dictionary defines a factor as “something that actively contributes to the production of a result.” A number of factors may be attributed to the creative process and its final product. These factors are purpose, diversity, relationships, imagery, and externalization. The ingredients of creativity seem to be the same for diverse domains, from the arts to the sciences and social studies. The factors of creativity are depicted in Figure 4.1. These parameters refer to the purpose of the project, plus four others identified by diversity, relationships, imagery, and externalization. The second and third factors define the structure of the problem and its solution, while the last two relate to representation issues for generating the solution and expressing it in some form. The creative factors are listed in Table 4.1, along with their defining characteristics and prescriptive implications. The operational implications are described for both the human problem solver, as well as for the computer system that might be developed to assist in this task. For example, imagery relates to the development of ideas through sensory mechanisms, whether in actuality or in conception. The prescriptive implication is to generate a series of images in various formats, whether pictorial, auditory, or tactile. Of these, the most powerful vehicle is the visual image which can simultaneously represent numerous objects and their relationships. The operational implication for a computer-based system is a rich store of icons or pictorial images that may be depicted on color screens using versatile graphic techniques. The problem to be resolved defines the purpose of the creative process. The factor of purpose involves the distillation of a problem into its essential elements. This involves the identification of critical attributes and the elimination of extraneous features. For millennia people had yearned to fly. The existence of birds was proof that flight was possible. Man’s straightforward approach to achieving flight was to imitate aviary shapes and motions, especially wings and their flapping. But birds have functional requirements other than airborne motion, such as feeding, fleeing, and reproduction. It was not until the peripheral activities such as wing-flapping were ignored, that man could design a machine allowing him to attain active flight.
Steven Kim
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195060171
- eISBN:
- 9780197560136
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195060171.003.0009
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction
How does one approach a large, difficult problem? By definition the solution to the problem is ill-defined, and the path to the solution is even more obscure. The poor ...
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How does one approach a large, difficult problem? By definition the solution to the problem is ill-defined, and the path to the solution is even more obscure. The poor definition of the problem does not, however, imply the complete lack of operational strategies. It is not sufficient to throw up our hands in despair and go fishing to await divine inspiration. The resolution of difficult problems—and of easy ones—can be facilitated by a coherent strategy. This “rational” nature of problem solving applies to the realm of scientific discovery: . . . However romantic and heroic we find the moment of discovery, we cannot believe either that the events leading up to that moment are entirely random and chaotic. . . . We believe that finding order in the world must itself be a process impregnated with purpose and reason. We believe that the process of discovery can be described and modeled, and that there are better and worse routes to discovery—more and less efficient paths. . . . Purposive activity enhances creative problem solving not only in science, but in nontechnical arenas as well. This chapter discusses a number of strategic issues and techniques for addressing challenging problems. Some failures are productive while others are not. An active failure is one that serves to advance the state of knowledge. Such a result may be used to modify a tentative hypothesis, whether through refinement or outright rejection. Active failures may in turn be classified into two types: definitive or mixed. A definitive failure is a strong result that may be used to overturn a proposition by showing it to be false. To illustrate, consider the question, “Are there stars in our galaxy that are over 15 billion years old?” Suppose that a means were found to give a definitive answer, and the resulting answer was “No.” This type of failure is actually a positive result for the opposite hypothesis. In other words, the negative response is actually a positive confirmation of the query, “Are there no stars in our galaxy over 15 billion years old?” In fact, a statistician might well have begun the investigation with the null hypothesis, “No star in our galaxy is over 15 billion years old.”
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How does one approach a large, difficult problem? By definition the solution to the problem is ill-defined, and the path to the solution is even more obscure. The poor definition of the problem does not, however, imply the complete lack of operational strategies. It is not sufficient to throw up our hands in despair and go fishing to await divine inspiration. The resolution of difficult problems—and of easy ones—can be facilitated by a coherent strategy. This “rational” nature of problem solving applies to the realm of scientific discovery: . . . However romantic and heroic we find the moment of discovery, we cannot believe either that the events leading up to that moment are entirely random and chaotic. . . . We believe that finding order in the world must itself be a process impregnated with purpose and reason. We believe that the process of discovery can be described and modeled, and that there are better and worse routes to discovery—more and less efficient paths. . . . Purposive activity enhances creative problem solving not only in science, but in nontechnical arenas as well. This chapter discusses a number of strategic issues and techniques for addressing challenging problems. Some failures are productive while others are not. An active failure is one that serves to advance the state of knowledge. Such a result may be used to modify a tentative hypothesis, whether through refinement or outright rejection. Active failures may in turn be classified into two types: definitive or mixed. A definitive failure is a strong result that may be used to overturn a proposition by showing it to be false. To illustrate, consider the question, “Are there stars in our galaxy that are over 15 billion years old?” Suppose that a means were found to give a definitive answer, and the resulting answer was “No.” This type of failure is actually a positive result for the opposite hypothesis. In other words, the negative response is actually a positive confirmation of the query, “Are there no stars in our galaxy over 15 billion years old?” In fact, a statistician might well have begun the investigation with the null hypothesis, “No star in our galaxy is over 15 billion years old.”
Yuk L. Yung and William B. DeMore
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195105018
- eISBN:
- 9780197560990
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195105018.003.0005
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Atmospheric Sciences
In this book we are concerned primarily with disequilibrium chemistry, of which the sun is the principal driving force. The sun is not, however, the only source of ...
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In this book we are concerned primarily with disequilibrium chemistry, of which the sun is the principal driving force. The sun is not, however, the only source of disequilibrium chemistry in the solar system. We briefly discuss other minor energy sources such as the solar wind, starlight, precipitation of energetic particles, and lightning. Note that these sources are not independent. For example, the ultimate energy source of the magnetospheric particles is the solar wind and planetary rotation; the energy source for lightning is atmospheric winds powered by solar irradiance. Only starlight and galactic cosmic rays are completely independent of the sun. While the sun is the energy source, the atoms and molecules in the planetary atmospheres are the receivers of this energy. For atoms the interaction with radiation results in three possibilities: (a) resonance scattering, (b) absorption followed by fluorescence, and (c) ionization. lonization usually requires photons in the extreme ultraviolet. The interaction between molecules and the radiation field is more complicated. In addition to the above (including Rayleigh and Raman scattering) we can have (d) dissociation, (e) intramolecular conversion, and (f) vibrational and rotational excitation. Note that processes (a)-(e) involve electronic excitation; process (f) usually involves infrared radiation that is not energetic enough to cause electronic excitation. The last process is important for the thermal budget of the atmosphere, a subject that is not pursued in this book. Scattering and fluorescence are a source of airglow and aurorae and provide valuable tools for monitoring detailed atomic and molecular processes in the atmosphere. Processes (c) and (d) are most important for determining the chemical composition of planetary atmospheres. Interesting chemical reactions are initiated when the absorption of solar energy leads to ionization or the breaking of chemical bonds. In this chapter we provide a survey of the absorption cross sections of selected atoms and molecules. The selection is based on the likely importance of these species in planetary atmospheres.
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In this book we are concerned primarily with disequilibrium chemistry, of which the sun is the principal driving force. The sun is not, however, the only source of disequilibrium chemistry in the solar system. We briefly discuss other minor energy sources such as the solar wind, starlight, precipitation of energetic particles, and lightning. Note that these sources are not independent. For example, the ultimate energy source of the magnetospheric particles is the solar wind and planetary rotation; the energy source for lightning is atmospheric winds powered by solar irradiance. Only starlight and galactic cosmic rays are completely independent of the sun. While the sun is the energy source, the atoms and molecules in the planetary atmospheres are the receivers of this energy. For atoms the interaction with radiation results in three possibilities: (a) resonance scattering, (b) absorption followed by fluorescence, and (c) ionization. lonization usually requires photons in the extreme ultraviolet. The interaction between molecules and the radiation field is more complicated. In addition to the above (including Rayleigh and Raman scattering) we can have (d) dissociation, (e) intramolecular conversion, and (f) vibrational and rotational excitation. Note that processes (a)-(e) involve electronic excitation; process (f) usually involves infrared radiation that is not energetic enough to cause electronic excitation. The last process is important for the thermal budget of the atmosphere, a subject that is not pursued in this book. Scattering and fluorescence are a source of airglow and aurorae and provide valuable tools for monitoring detailed atomic and molecular processes in the atmosphere. Processes (c) and (d) are most important for determining the chemical composition of planetary atmospheres. Interesting chemical reactions are initiated when the absorption of solar energy leads to ionization or the breaking of chemical bonds. In this chapter we provide a survey of the absorption cross sections of selected atoms and molecules. The selection is based on the likely importance of these species in planetary atmospheres.
Shiro Kobayashi, Soo-Ik Oh, and Taylan Altan
- Published in print:
- 1989
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195044027
- eISBN:
- 9780197560006
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195044027.003.0019
- Subject:
- Chemistry, Materials Chemistry
In the previous chapters we have discussed only the applications of flow formulation to the analysis of metal-forming processes. Lately, elastic-plastic (solid) ...
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In the previous chapters we have discussed only the applications of flow formulation to the analysis of metal-forming processes. Lately, elastic-plastic (solid) formulations have evolved to produce techniques suitable for metal-forming analysis. This evolution is the result of developments achieved in large-strain formulation, beginning from the infinitesimal approach based on the Prandtl–Reuss equation. A question always arises as to the selection of the approach—“flow” approach or “solid” approach. A significant contribution to the solution of this question was made through a project in 1978, coordinated by Kudo, in which an attempt was made to examine the comparative merits of various numerical methods. The results were compiled for upsetting of circular solid cylinders under specific conditions, and revealed the importance of certain parameters used in computation, such as mesh systems and the size of an increment in displacement. This project also showed that the solid formulation needed improvement, particularly in terms of predicting the phenomenon of folding. For elastic-plastic materials, the constitutive equations relate strain–rate to stress–rates, instead of to stresses. Consequently, it is convenient to write the field equation in the boundary-value problem for elastic-plastic materials in terms of the equilibrium of stress rates. In this chapter, the basic equations for the finite-element discretization involved in solid formulations are outlined both for the infinitesimal approach and for large-strain theory. Further, the solutions obtained by the solid formulation are compared with those obtained by the flow formulation for the problems of plate bending and ring compression. A discussion is also given concerning the selection of the approach for the analysis. In conclusion, significant recent developments in the role of the finite-element method in metal-forming technology are summarized. The field equation for the boundary-value problem associated with the deformation of elastic-plastic materials is the equilibrium equation of stress rates. As stated in Chap. 1 (Section 1.3), the internal distribution of stress, in addition to the current states of the body, is supposed to be known, and the boundary conditions are prescribed in terms of velocity and traction-rate.
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In the previous chapters we have discussed only the applications of flow formulation to the analysis of metal-forming processes. Lately, elastic-plastic (solid) formulations have evolved to produce techniques suitable for metal-forming analysis. This evolution is the result of developments achieved in large-strain formulation, beginning from the infinitesimal approach based on the Prandtl–Reuss equation. A question always arises as to the selection of the approach—“flow” approach or “solid” approach. A significant contribution to the solution of this question was made through a project in 1978, coordinated by Kudo, in which an attempt was made to examine the comparative merits of various numerical methods. The results were compiled for upsetting of circular solid cylinders under specific conditions, and revealed the importance of certain parameters used in computation, such as mesh systems and the size of an increment in displacement. This project also showed that the solid formulation needed improvement, particularly in terms of predicting the phenomenon of folding. For elastic-plastic materials, the constitutive equations relate strain–rate to stress–rates, instead of to stresses. Consequently, it is convenient to write the field equation in the boundary-value problem for elastic-plastic materials in terms of the equilibrium of stress rates. In this chapter, the basic equations for the finite-element discretization involved in solid formulations are outlined both for the infinitesimal approach and for large-strain theory. Further, the solutions obtained by the solid formulation are compared with those obtained by the flow formulation for the problems of plate bending and ring compression. A discussion is also given concerning the selection of the approach for the analysis. In conclusion, significant recent developments in the role of the finite-element method in metal-forming technology are summarized. The field equation for the boundary-value problem associated with the deformation of elastic-plastic materials is the equilibrium equation of stress rates. As stated in Chap. 1 (Section 1.3), the internal distribution of stress, in addition to the current states of the body, is supposed to be known, and the boundary conditions are prescribed in terms of velocity and traction-rate.
Robert E. Newnham
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780198520757
- eISBN:
- 9780191916601
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198520757.003.0023
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Geochemistry
When two different metals are connected together in a circuit and the two junctions are held at different temperatures, five physical phenomena take place ...
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When two different metals are connected together in a circuit and the two junctions are held at different temperatures, five physical phenomena take place simultaneously. Thermal and electric currents flow in the circuit, giving rise to Joule heating and thermal conduction. The driving forces for these currents are three interrelated thermoelectric phenomena: the Seebeck Effect, the Peltier Effect, and the Thomson Effect. For commonly used thermocouples, a voltage is developed when the junctions are held at different temperatures. In practice, one junction is held at a constant temperature (often the melting point of ice), and the open circuit voltage is measured as a function of the temperature of the second junction. If the reference temperature is 0◦C, then the thermocouple voltage can be expressed as a power series. . . . V = αT + βT2 + γ T3 +· · · , . . . where T is the temperature in ◦C and the coefficients depend on the choice of metals. Data for Cu–Ni and Cu–Fe thermocouples are presented in Fig. 21.2 along with the governing equations. If the cold junction is at a temperature other than 0◦C, it is only necessary to add a constant term. From this it follows that dV/dT at one junction is independent of the temperature of the second junction.
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When two different metals are connected together in a circuit and the two junctions are held at different temperatures, five physical phenomena take place simultaneously. Thermal and electric currents flow in the circuit, giving rise to Joule heating and thermal conduction. The driving forces for these currents are three interrelated thermoelectric phenomena: the Seebeck Effect, the Peltier Effect, and the Thomson Effect. For commonly used thermocouples, a voltage is developed when the junctions are held at different temperatures. In practice, one junction is held at a constant temperature (often the melting point of ice), and the open circuit voltage is measured as a function of the temperature of the second junction. If the reference temperature is 0◦C, then the thermocouple voltage can be expressed as a power series. . . . V = αT + βT2 + γ T3 +· · · , . . . where T is the temperature in ◦C and the coefficients depend on the choice of metals. Data for Cu–Ni and Cu–Fe thermocouples are presented in Fig. 21.2 along with the governing equations. If the cold junction is at a temperature other than 0◦C, it is only necessary to add a constant term. From this it follows that dV/dT at one junction is independent of the temperature of the second junction.
Sarianna M. Lundan
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780231172981
- eISBN:
- 9780231541640
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231172981.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Financial Economics
The chapter outlines the different motivations for FDI as well as the economic and institutional determinants of location choice for foreign investment, which is in turn fundamental for analyzing ...
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The chapter outlines the different motivations for FDI as well as the economic and institutional determinants of location choice for foreign investment, which is in turn fundamental for analyzing whether and to what extent different types of incentives can and should be used to influence those investment decisions. The chapter discusses the differences between market seeking, resource seeking, efficiency seeking and strategic asset seeking investment, each of which of has different implications for governments seeking to attract FDI, particularly through the use of incentives. The chapter also examines the policy challenges arising from a changing composition of FDI, including the shift to services, the increasing importance of non-equity modalities, the growth in market seeking investment into emerging markets, and the rise of market and asset seeking investment from emerging markets.Less
The chapter outlines the different motivations for FDI as well as the economic and institutional determinants of location choice for foreign investment, which is in turn fundamental for analyzing whether and to what extent different types of incentives can and should be used to influence those investment decisions. The chapter discusses the differences between market seeking, resource seeking, efficiency seeking and strategic asset seeking investment, each of which of has different implications for governments seeking to attract FDI, particularly through the use of incentives. The chapter also examines the policy challenges arising from a changing composition of FDI, including the shift to services, the increasing importance of non-equity modalities, the growth in market seeking investment into emerging markets, and the rise of market and asset seeking investment from emerging markets.
