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This chapter examines the meaning of the terminated Milošević trial in relation to the idea that courts produce consequential narratives. In particular, it looks at efforts to deploy and interpret the one document from Milošević that, more than any other, was thought of as a substitute for judgment: the Trial Chamber's Rule 98bis Decision on the Motion to Acquit.

This chapter begins with a brief introduction to research on the intersection of international criminal justice and history. It details the methodology used to dissect ICTY judgments and applies an abbreviated form of it to the Rule 98bis Decision. It then combines this analysis with findings in other ICTY cases that intersect with Milošević to see how much history can be salvaged from the trial.

This chapter examines the meaning of the 2004 Decision on the Motion for Judgment of Acquittal in the Milošević trial. It argues that that the Decision was critical to re-legitimating the contentious proceedings. The value of the Decision lies in eschewing an incontrovertible verdict and drawing attention to the complexity of the ICTY's procedural and substantive law. By having reined in the theater of international justice that the trial had become, the Trial Chamber's preliminary assessment of the Prosecution's case reflects international adjudication at its best.

Foraging is the set of processes by which organisms acquire energy and nutrients, whether the food is directly consumed (feeding), stored for later consumption (hoarding), or given to other individuals (provisioning). Foraging behavior plays an important role in evolutionary biology, not only because it is a major determinant of the survival, growth, and reproductive success of foragers but also because of its impact on predator avoidance, pollination, and dispersal adaptations of potential food organisms. From a contemporary perspective, it is surprising how generally the fundamental role of behavior was neglected in early-20th-century studies of evolution and ecology. Following the development of quantitative techniques and field-oriented approaches by European ethologists, however, interest in foraging, along with other aspects of behavior grew rapidly. Most of this research has sought to describe, explain, and predict foraging behavior quantitatively. The development of an a priori predictive approach using optimality theory, in particular, has revealed a richness and complexity in the patterns of foraging that could not have been imagined only a few decades ago. My goal in this chapter is to provide a brief overview of the main issues in foraging behavior and the logical basis of current approaches. I wish to highlight the successes and potential value of these approaches, while recognizing the gaps and challenges for future research. Contemporary studies of foraging by evolutionary ecologists are based on the synthesis of two research traditions, both emerging during the 1960s. The ethological approach to behavior is illustrated by the research of K. von Frisch and his associates on honeybee foraging and N. Tinbergen and his group on searching behavior of birds. The ethologists’ recognition of behavior as an evolved phenotype, their emphasis on its ecological context, and their careful quantitative and experimental fieldwork set the stage for behavioral ecology (Curio 1976). They classified the behavioral components of foraging, an important contribution to much of the ecological work that followed, and identified a number of widespread characteristics such as localized search following the discovery of a prey (“area-restricted search”) and enhanced detection following experience of a particular prey type (“search image”). The theoretical approach to population ecology was foreshadowed by the Russian V. S. Ivlev.

Observer models specify computations that are sufficient to predict the behavior of an observer for many different input stimuli with a small number of parameters. Observer models specify the transformations leading to the relevant internal representations from the stimulus, and define the decision rules for particular tasks. These models have a remarkable ability to summarize compactly the behavioral outcomes in many conditions and provide a conceptual framework within which to understand the responses of the sensory system. In this chapter, we consider both modern single-channel and multichannel observer models. Each observer in a task can be described by a small number of parameters that fully specify how the stimulus is recoded in an internal response and then subjected to a task-relevant decision. Once these parameters have been estimated from specific experimental tests, it is possible to make predictions about an observer’s responses to a wide range of stimuli and paradigms.

Research in environmental cognition has been fragmented into at least three related but separate areas that reflect different purposes, viewpoints, and disciplinary conventions (Evans and Gärling, this volume). One tradition has focused on predicting spatial choices such as choosing shops or modes of transportation (Timmermans, this volume). A second tradition, driven in part by the necessity to make value judgments about settings to be spared or modified in development, has focused on the assessment of environments, and particularly on the visual quality of natural settings (R. Kaplan, this volume). Finally, a third tradition, coming principally from psychology and geography, has focused on exploring the content and structure of mental representations of the environment (Golledge, this volume). In this chapter we discuss these three approaches to environmental cognition and examine how they can contribute to each other and to a more general view of action, evaluation, and cognition. We focus specifically on the linkages between the physical environment, cognitive mediators, and outcomes such as wayfinding, decision making, and other actions. We pay particular attention to how the environment and mediators are represented. This chapter is organized into several sections. After the introduction, we review the chapters in this volume by Timmermans, R. Kaplan, and Golledge. Unlike much previous work in evaluation and in spatial decision making, all three authors discuss the cognitive processes that mediate between environment and behavior. The following section considers alternative approaches to cognitive mediators such as mental models and schemas. Following this, we briefly examine how the physical setting has been represented in environmental cognition. We then turn to computational models that attempt to provide rigorous definitions of both environment and mediator. Next, we propose our own preliminary schema-based model of wayfinding. Finally, we suggest some questions for further research. In artificial intelligence research a distinction is made between two alternative approaches to theory: “scruffy” and “neat” (Luger & Stubblefield, 1989). Whereas researchers following both traditions are interested in simulating human cognitive behavior, the scruffies primarily focus on producing a computational system where the outcomes mimic human behavior.