Ogbu Kalu
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195340006
- eISBN:
- 9780199867073
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340006.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, World Religions
This chapter begins with a description of charismatic flares in missionary churches from 1920 to 1960. It then considers the typology of classical Pentecostalism in African from 1901 to 1960, and ...
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This chapter begins with a description of charismatic flares in missionary churches from 1920 to 1960. It then considers the typology of classical Pentecostalism in African from 1901 to 1960, and early Pentecostalism in Southern Africa from 1908 to 1958. It argues that Pentecostalism emerged from an indigenous response of Africans to the missionary message; the missionary input from evangelical ministries such as Scripture Union and Campus Crusade; from the increasing missionary forays of Pentecostals from the holiness tradition and Pentecostal denominations from various countries who utilized the labors of African agents; and from interdenominational parachurches, bolstered by the educational institutions of many American Bible colleges and many evangelical evangelistic outreaches.Less
This chapter begins with a description of charismatic flares in missionary churches from 1920 to 1960. It then considers the typology of classical Pentecostalism in African from 1901 to 1960, and early Pentecostalism in Southern Africa from 1908 to 1958. It argues that Pentecostalism emerged from an indigenous response of Africans to the missionary message; the missionary input from evangelical ministries such as Scripture Union and Campus Crusade; from the increasing missionary forays of Pentecostals from the holiness tradition and Pentecostal denominations from various countries who utilized the labors of African agents; and from interdenominational parachurches, bolstered by the educational institutions of many American Bible colleges and many evangelical evangelistic outreaches.
Edward A. Siecienski
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195372045
- eISBN:
- 9780199777297
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195372045.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
Although an uneasy peace was maintained in the years after Photius, during the tenth and eleventh centuries political, cultural, and religious factors rapidly drove East and West further part. The ...
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Although an uneasy peace was maintained in the years after Photius, during the tenth and eleventh centuries political, cultural, and religious factors rapidly drove East and West further part. The mutual excommunications of Cardinal Humbert and Patriarch Michael Cerularius in 1054, often called the beginning of the “Great Schism” between East and West, reignited the filioque debate, as its omission from/addition to the creed came to be seen as sign of the other’s heretical ways. While the Greek-speaking East continued to rely heavily on the claims put forward in the Mystagogia, Latin scholastic theologians like Anselm and Thomas Aquinas advanced an entirely new series of arguments in favor of the doctrine. Theological encounters between the two sides (with some notable exceptions) only exacerbated the tension, and following the Fourth Crusade there seemed little chance of healing the breach that had grown up between Christian East and West.Less
Although an uneasy peace was maintained in the years after Photius, during the tenth and eleventh centuries political, cultural, and religious factors rapidly drove East and West further part. The mutual excommunications of Cardinal Humbert and Patriarch Michael Cerularius in 1054, often called the beginning of the “Great Schism” between East and West, reignited the filioque debate, as its omission from/addition to the creed came to be seen as sign of the other’s heretical ways. While the Greek-speaking East continued to rely heavily on the claims put forward in the Mystagogia, Latin scholastic theologians like Anselm and Thomas Aquinas advanced an entirely new series of arguments in favor of the doctrine. Theological encounters between the two sides (with some notable exceptions) only exacerbated the tension, and following the Fourth Crusade there seemed little chance of healing the breach that had grown up between Christian East and West.
Jane Idleman Smith
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195307313
- eISBN:
- 9780199867875
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195307313.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
For more than fourteen centuries Christians and Muslims have lived in proximity and in one way or another have interacted with each other. The responses of each community have been guided both ...
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For more than fourteen centuries Christians and Muslims have lived in proximity and in one way or another have interacted with each other. The responses of each community have been guided both religiously and practically. This chapter details the rise of Islam and the meaning of jihad, relations between Muslims and Christians from the beginning of Islam to the present, religious polemic, the Crusades, the importance of Jerusalem for both faiths, Muslim military advances into western territories and western missionary movements, and political colonialism in Muslim lands. Dialogue between Christians and Muslims cannot proceed in depth without an understanding of the history that has led to current preconceptions, tensions, and often misunderstandings.Less
For more than fourteen centuries Christians and Muslims have lived in proximity and in one way or another have interacted with each other. The responses of each community have been guided both religiously and practically. This chapter details the rise of Islam and the meaning of jihad, relations between Muslims and Christians from the beginning of Islam to the present, religious polemic, the Crusades, the importance of Jerusalem for both faiths, Muslim military advances into western territories and western missionary movements, and political colonialism in Muslim lands. Dialogue between Christians and Muslims cannot proceed in depth without an understanding of the history that has led to current preconceptions, tensions, and often misunderstandings.
David Domke and Kevin Coe
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195326413
- eISBN:
- 9780199870431
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195326413.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
This chapter focuses on the first religious signal: speaking the language of the faithful. Two types of presidential communications — invocations of God and invocations of faith — are examined in all ...
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This chapter focuses on the first religious signal: speaking the language of the faithful. Two types of presidential communications — invocations of God and invocations of faith — are examined in all major presidential speeches since the Inauguration of Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. The evidence reveals dramatic increases in both types of language beginning in 1981 with the Inauguration of Ronald Reagan. Since that time, presidents have made direct references to God a more consistent and more prominent part of their public speeches. They have also made invocations of faith — using terms such as Bible, blessing, church, crusade, mission, pray, and the like — a more prominent part of their speeches. Further evidence reveals that these changes cannot be accounted for by political party, the occurrence of war, or the prospect of facing a re-election campaign. Regardless of these factors, the past four presidents have engaged in religious politics in a way that previous modern presidents did not.Less
This chapter focuses on the first religious signal: speaking the language of the faithful. Two types of presidential communications — invocations of God and invocations of faith — are examined in all major presidential speeches since the Inauguration of Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. The evidence reveals dramatic increases in both types of language beginning in 1981 with the Inauguration of Ronald Reagan. Since that time, presidents have made direct references to God a more consistent and more prominent part of their public speeches. They have also made invocations of faith — using terms such as Bible, blessing, church, crusade, mission, pray, and the like — a more prominent part of their speeches. Further evidence reveals that these changes cannot be accounted for by political party, the occurrence of war, or the prospect of facing a re-election campaign. Regardless of these factors, the past four presidents have engaged in religious politics in a way that previous modern presidents did not.
Wendy L. Wall
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195329100
- eISBN:
- 9780199870226
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195329100.003.0009
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
Beginning in the late 1940s, government officials and an array of private elites worked to enlist civil society in general—and immigrants and their children in particular—in efforts to project the ...
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Beginning in the late 1940s, government officials and an array of private elites worked to enlist civil society in general—and immigrants and their children in particular—in efforts to project the “American Way” overseas. This chapter focuses on four such efforts at public diplomacy: the Friendship Train which collected foodstuffs for Italy and France; the “Letters to Italy” and “Letters from America” campaigns, both designed to persuade immigrants to write friends and family in the Old Country; and the massive Crusade for Freedom of the 1950s, which mobilized public support for Radio Free Europe. Such efforts should be understood, not simply as weapons in the Cold War, but as part of the process of constructing a domestic consensus on America’s core values. Organizers of these efforts sought to develop in Americans a “greater awareness” of their own blessings and to convince all Americans that they stood on the front lines in the battle against communism.Less
Beginning in the late 1940s, government officials and an array of private elites worked to enlist civil society in general—and immigrants and their children in particular—in efforts to project the “American Way” overseas. This chapter focuses on four such efforts at public diplomacy: the Friendship Train which collected foodstuffs for Italy and France; the “Letters to Italy” and “Letters from America” campaigns, both designed to persuade immigrants to write friends and family in the Old Country; and the massive Crusade for Freedom of the 1950s, which mobilized public support for Radio Free Europe. Such efforts should be understood, not simply as weapons in the Cold War, but as part of the process of constructing a domestic consensus on America’s core values. Organizers of these efforts sought to develop in Americans a “greater awareness” of their own blessings and to convince all Americans that they stood on the front lines in the battle against communism.
Christopher Fletcher
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199546916
- eISBN:
- 9780191720826
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546916.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
When Richard II began to assert himself at the age of 15, it was still ambiguous whether he was of an age to exert his full authority. This chapter focuses on one strategy the king pursued to remedy ...
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When Richard II began to assert himself at the age of 15, it was still ambiguous whether he was of an age to exert his full authority. This chapter focuses on one strategy the king pursued to remedy this situation, namely the aggressive pursuit of a royal expedition, partly in order to promote his manhood in the sense of his renown and personal honour. Those who wished to contest this and other strategies to establish the king's authority took recourse instead to the topos of his inconstant youth. This chapter traces the project of a royal expedition from the first emergence of the king's ‘firm purpose’ in May 1382 to his attempts to intervene in Bishop Despenser's Crusade in autumn 1383. It places this in the context of other forms of evidence of the king's self-assertion, up to the tumultuous parliament held at Salisbury in April 1384.Less
When Richard II began to assert himself at the age of 15, it was still ambiguous whether he was of an age to exert his full authority. This chapter focuses on one strategy the king pursued to remedy this situation, namely the aggressive pursuit of a royal expedition, partly in order to promote his manhood in the sense of his renown and personal honour. Those who wished to contest this and other strategies to establish the king's authority took recourse instead to the topos of his inconstant youth. This chapter traces the project of a royal expedition from the first emergence of the king's ‘firm purpose’ in May 1382 to his attempts to intervene in Bishop Despenser's Crusade in autumn 1383. It places this in the context of other forms of evidence of the king's self-assertion, up to the tumultuous parliament held at Salisbury in April 1384.
J. M. Hussey
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780198264569
- eISBN:
- 9780191601170
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198264569.003.0008
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
The effects of the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 and the subsequent establishment of a Latin Empire in the area covered by the Orthodox Church as a result of the Fourth Crusade are discussed. ...
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The effects of the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 and the subsequent establishment of a Latin Empire in the area covered by the Orthodox Church as a result of the Fourth Crusade are discussed. The period covered is 1204–61. The different sections of the chapter address the following: the Latin patriarchate of Orthodox Constantinople (1204–61); ecclesiastical organization within the various Latin conquests—Greece and the Cyclades, Venetian Crete, and Cyprus; thirteenth century rival Byzantine Churches—Nicaea and Epirus; and the Nicaean Empire and Rome.Less
The effects of the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 and the subsequent establishment of a Latin Empire in the area covered by the Orthodox Church as a result of the Fourth Crusade are discussed. The period covered is 1204–61. The different sections of the chapter address the following: the Latin patriarchate of Orthodox Constantinople (1204–61); ecclesiastical organization within the various Latin conquests—Greece and the Cyclades, Venetian Crete, and Cyprus; thirteenth century rival Byzantine Churches—Nicaea and Epirus; and the Nicaean Empire and Rome.
John Tolan, Gilles Veinstein, and Henry Laurens
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691147055
- eISBN:
- 9781400844753
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691147055.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter is devoted to the development of the concepts of jihad, Crusade, and reconquista. It shows that, in both Christian and Muslim territories, ideologies of holy war were often used to ...
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This chapter is devoted to the development of the concepts of jihad, Crusade, and reconquista. It shows that, in both Christian and Muslim territories, ideologies of holy war were often used to justify conquest of the “infidels.” These ideologies glorified war waged for the “true” religion but rarely ruled out political and military alliances with princes belonging to rival faiths. Nor did they prevent princes from setting aside a protected but subaltern place for religious minorities. Hence, although the ideology of holy war served to justify or celebrate one victory or another, the chapter argues that religion was often an a posteriori explanation for a conflict that had many other causes.Less
This chapter is devoted to the development of the concepts of jihad, Crusade, and reconquista. It shows that, in both Christian and Muslim territories, ideologies of holy war were often used to justify conquest of the “infidels.” These ideologies glorified war waged for the “true” religion but rarely ruled out political and military alliances with princes belonging to rival faiths. Nor did they prevent princes from setting aside a protected but subaltern place for religious minorities. Hence, although the ideology of holy war served to justify or celebrate one victory or another, the chapter argues that religion was often an a posteriori explanation for a conflict that had many other causes.
Judith Herrin
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691153018
- eISBN:
- 9781400845224
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691153018.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter focuses on the period when Greece was essentially a minor province of the Christian Roman empire of Byzantium. During “The Dark Ages,” there was a very slow and uncertain shift from a ...
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This chapter focuses on the period when Greece was essentially a minor province of the Christian Roman empire of Byzantium. During “The Dark Ages,” there was a very slow and uncertain shift from a society organized according to the principles of the ancient world—a world of half-autonomous cities—to one dominated by the Byzantine Empire. The chapter first describes the upheavals that disrupted the empire during the first half of the seventh century before discussing how it regained stability during the late seventh and eighth centuries. It then considers the disastrous results of the Fourth Crusade for the empire and the emergence of Byzantium as a theocracy. It also examines how Byzantium reclaimed the provinces of Greece and how the Slavs were integrated into Byzantine society. It concludes with an overview of Byzantine economy, society, and culture during the period as well as the legacy of the Byzantine Empire.Less
This chapter focuses on the period when Greece was essentially a minor province of the Christian Roman empire of Byzantium. During “The Dark Ages,” there was a very slow and uncertain shift from a society organized according to the principles of the ancient world—a world of half-autonomous cities—to one dominated by the Byzantine Empire. The chapter first describes the upheavals that disrupted the empire during the first half of the seventh century before discussing how it regained stability during the late seventh and eighth centuries. It then considers the disastrous results of the Fourth Crusade for the empire and the emergence of Byzantium as a theocracy. It also examines how Byzantium reclaimed the provinces of Greece and how the Slavs were integrated into Byzantine society. It concludes with an overview of Byzantine economy, society, and culture during the period as well as the legacy of the Byzantine Empire.
Judith Herrin
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691153018
- eISBN:
- 9781400845224
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691153018.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter examines the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century. Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Byzantine state machinery was extremely sophisticated. It directed a ...
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This chapter examines the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century. Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Byzantine state machinery was extremely sophisticated. It directed a systematic foreign policy and maintained a developed network of diplomatic relations with neighboring powers, controlled the minting and circulation of a stable gold currency, and ran a complex bureaucratic administration. However, the empire's economic organization was primitive. The chapter analyzes the fiscal and commercial aspects of the economic organization of a provincial area of the Byzantine Empire under the Angeloi during the period 1185–1204. It suggests that the conquest and sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade constitutes a collapse and disappearance of the empire in 1204, and that the establishment of a Latin Empire on Byzantine territory signals a definite break with the former Byzantine organization.Less
This chapter examines the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century. Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Byzantine state machinery was extremely sophisticated. It directed a systematic foreign policy and maintained a developed network of diplomatic relations with neighboring powers, controlled the minting and circulation of a stable gold currency, and ran a complex bureaucratic administration. However, the empire's economic organization was primitive. The chapter analyzes the fiscal and commercial aspects of the economic organization of a provincial area of the Byzantine Empire under the Angeloi during the period 1185–1204. It suggests that the conquest and sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade constitutes a collapse and disappearance of the empire in 1204, and that the establishment of a Latin Empire on Byzantine territory signals a definite break with the former Byzantine organization.
Judith Herrin
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691153018
- eISBN:
- 9781400845224
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691153018.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter offers a historical background on the island of Kythera during the Byzantine period. During the early Christian and Byzantine era, Kythera maintained the same close connection to the ...
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This chapter offers a historical background on the island of Kythera during the Byzantine period. During the early Christian and Byzantine era, Kythera maintained the same close connection to the mainland that had existed from the time of the Argive–Spartan rivalry. The introduction of Christianity in the fourth century AD was allegedly due to Hosia Elesse, and its tenth-century revival was almost certainly the responsibility of Hosios Theodoros. Settlers from the mainland repopulated Kythera after its devastation or abandonment. The chapter describes the status of Kythera, first between the fourth and seventh centuries, and then from the mid-tenth century to 1205. It also examines how Kythera came under Venetian rule following the signing of the Partition Treaty of 1204 that divided the Byzantine Empire between the Venetians, the Franks, and the pilgrims of the Fourth Crusade. Kythera remained a stronghold of Byzantine Orthodoxy long after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.Less
This chapter offers a historical background on the island of Kythera during the Byzantine period. During the early Christian and Byzantine era, Kythera maintained the same close connection to the mainland that had existed from the time of the Argive–Spartan rivalry. The introduction of Christianity in the fourth century AD was allegedly due to Hosia Elesse, and its tenth-century revival was almost certainly the responsibility of Hosios Theodoros. Settlers from the mainland repopulated Kythera after its devastation or abandonment. The chapter describes the status of Kythera, first between the fourth and seventh centuries, and then from the mid-tenth century to 1205. It also examines how Kythera came under Venetian rule following the signing of the Partition Treaty of 1204 that divided the Byzantine Empire between the Venetians, the Franks, and the pilgrims of the Fourth Crusade. Kythera remained a stronghold of Byzantine Orthodoxy long after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
M. Cecilia Gaposchkin
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781501705151
- eISBN:
- 9781501707988
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9781501705151.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History
In 1098, three years into the First Crusade and after a brutal eight-month siege, the Franks captured the city of Antioch. Two days later, Muslim forces arrived with a relief army, and the victors ...
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In 1098, three years into the First Crusade and after a brutal eight-month siege, the Franks captured the city of Antioch. Two days later, Muslim forces arrived with a relief army, and the victors became the besieged. Exhausted and ravaged by illness and hunger, the Franks were exhorted by their religious leaders to supplicate God, and for three days they performed a series of liturgical exercises, beseeching God through ritual prayer to forgive their sins and grant them victory. The following day, the Christian army, accompanied by bishops and priests reciting psalms and hymns, marched out of the city to face the Muslim forces and won a resounding and improbable victory. From the very beginning and throughout the history of the Crusades, liturgical prayer, masses, and alms were all marshaled in the fight against the Muslim armies. During the Fifth Crusade, Pope Honorius III likened liturgy to “invisible weapons.” This book is about those invisible weapons; about the prayers and liturgical rituals that were part of the battle for the faith. The book tells the story of the greatest collective religious undertaking of the Middle Ages, putting front and center the ways in which Latin Christians communicated their ideas and aspirations for crusade to God through liturgy, how liturgy was deployed in crusading, and how liturgy absorbed ideals or priorities of crusading. Liturgy helped construct the devotional ideology of the crusading project, endowing war with religious meaning, placing crusading ideals at the heart of Christian identity, and embedding crusading warfare squarely into the eschatological economy. By connecting medieval liturgical books with the larger narrative of crusading, Gaposchkin allows us to understand a crucial facet in the culture of holy war.Less
In 1098, three years into the First Crusade and after a brutal eight-month siege, the Franks captured the city of Antioch. Two days later, Muslim forces arrived with a relief army, and the victors became the besieged. Exhausted and ravaged by illness and hunger, the Franks were exhorted by their religious leaders to supplicate God, and for three days they performed a series of liturgical exercises, beseeching God through ritual prayer to forgive their sins and grant them victory. The following day, the Christian army, accompanied by bishops and priests reciting psalms and hymns, marched out of the city to face the Muslim forces and won a resounding and improbable victory. From the very beginning and throughout the history of the Crusades, liturgical prayer, masses, and alms were all marshaled in the fight against the Muslim armies. During the Fifth Crusade, Pope Honorius III likened liturgy to “invisible weapons.” This book is about those invisible weapons; about the prayers and liturgical rituals that were part of the battle for the faith. The book tells the story of the greatest collective religious undertaking of the Middle Ages, putting front and center the ways in which Latin Christians communicated their ideas and aspirations for crusade to God through liturgy, how liturgy was deployed in crusading, and how liturgy absorbed ideals or priorities of crusading. Liturgy helped construct the devotional ideology of the crusading project, endowing war with religious meaning, placing crusading ideals at the heart of Christian identity, and embedding crusading warfare squarely into the eschatological economy. By connecting medieval liturgical books with the larger narrative of crusading, Gaposchkin allows us to understand a crucial facet in the culture of holy war.
George R. Boyer
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780691178738
- eISBN:
- 9780691183992
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691178738.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This chapter discusses the Crusade Against Outrelief and its effects on working-class behavior. The increased use of the workhouse caused a sharp decline in the share of the population receiving poor ...
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This chapter discusses the Crusade Against Outrelief and its effects on working-class behavior. The increased use of the workhouse caused a sharp decline in the share of the population receiving poor relief. The crusade ended the use of the Poor Law to assist those temporarily in need during economic dislocations—after 1870 there is no hint of the trade cycle in aggregate statistics on numbers receiving relief, as there should have been in a modern social insurance regime with its “automatic stabilizers.” As such, working-class self-help increased greatly after 1870, so that by the beginning of the twentieth century most skilled workers had some protection against negative income shocks. However, the situation was different for the low-skilled, most of whom had little savings and remained quite vulnerable to unexpected income loss.Less
This chapter discusses the Crusade Against Outrelief and its effects on working-class behavior. The increased use of the workhouse caused a sharp decline in the share of the population receiving poor relief. The crusade ended the use of the Poor Law to assist those temporarily in need during economic dislocations—after 1870 there is no hint of the trade cycle in aggregate statistics on numbers receiving relief, as there should have been in a modern social insurance regime with its “automatic stabilizers.” As such, working-class self-help increased greatly after 1870, so that by the beginning of the twentieth century most skilled workers had some protection against negative income shocks. However, the situation was different for the low-skilled, most of whom had little savings and remained quite vulnerable to unexpected income loss.
George R. Boyer
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780691178738
- eISBN:
- 9780691183992
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691178738.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This chapter demonstrates how the aged coped economically and the extent of their reliance on the Poor Law from the 1860s to 1908. The share of working-class persons 65 and older receiving poor ...
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This chapter demonstrates how the aged coped economically and the extent of their reliance on the Poor Law from the 1860s to 1908. The share of working-class persons 65 and older receiving poor relief within a year ranged from about one-half in the 1860s to about one-third in 1908. A large part of this decline in old age pauperism resulted from policy changes brought about by the Crusade Against Outrelief. Workers found it difficult to save enough to provide for their old age. Those who were physically able continued to work, albeit at reduced pay, and many received assistance from their children. However, the ability of older workers to support themselves declined with age, and married children with families often were unable to assist aged parents. The combination of little saving, declining earnings, and lack of family support forced many of the aged to turn to the Poor Law.Less
This chapter demonstrates how the aged coped economically and the extent of their reliance on the Poor Law from the 1860s to 1908. The share of working-class persons 65 and older receiving poor relief within a year ranged from about one-half in the 1860s to about one-third in 1908. A large part of this decline in old age pauperism resulted from policy changes brought about by the Crusade Against Outrelief. Workers found it difficult to save enough to provide for their old age. Those who were physically able continued to work, albeit at reduced pay, and many received assistance from their children. However, the ability of older workers to support themselves declined with age, and married children with families often were unable to assist aged parents. The combination of little saving, declining earnings, and lack of family support forced many of the aged to turn to the Poor Law.
Jonathan Phillips
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198205401
- eISBN:
- 9780191676611
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205401.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History
The triumph of the First Crusade (1095–1099) led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. Remarkably, despite growing pressure from the neighbouring Muslim powers, and the ...
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The triumph of the First Crusade (1095–1099) led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. Remarkably, despite growing pressure from the neighbouring Muslim powers, and the failure of the Second Crusade (1145–49), the settlers were able to occupy Jerusalem and substantial areas of what are now Israel, Syria, and the Lebanon for over three-quarters of a century. It was the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 which precipitated the famous Third Crusade dominated by Richard the Lionheart. This is the first systematic investigation of the settlers' attempts to seek support for their vital role as guardians of the Holy Land. The book draws together a disparate range of evidence to show how they turned to western Europe, and to a lesser extent Byzantium, for help. As attitudes and strategies evolved, the settlers' approach became increasingly sophisticated, peaking during the reign of King Amalric of Jerusalem (1163–74), when diplomatic activity was particularly intense. The book also investigates the attitude of King Henry II of England towards the crusades, and the effects of the Becket dispute on western responses to the needs of the Holy Land. The study demonstrates that contact between the Latin East and the West was far more complex than previously believed, and exposes for the first time the range and scale of the settlers' efforts to maintain Christian control of the Holy Land.Less
The triumph of the First Crusade (1095–1099) led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. Remarkably, despite growing pressure from the neighbouring Muslim powers, and the failure of the Second Crusade (1145–49), the settlers were able to occupy Jerusalem and substantial areas of what are now Israel, Syria, and the Lebanon for over three-quarters of a century. It was the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 which precipitated the famous Third Crusade dominated by Richard the Lionheart. This is the first systematic investigation of the settlers' attempts to seek support for their vital role as guardians of the Holy Land. The book draws together a disparate range of evidence to show how they turned to western Europe, and to a lesser extent Byzantium, for help. As attitudes and strategies evolved, the settlers' approach became increasingly sophisticated, peaking during the reign of King Amalric of Jerusalem (1163–74), when diplomatic activity was particularly intense. The book also investigates the attitude of King Henry II of England towards the crusades, and the effects of the Becket dispute on western responses to the needs of the Holy Land. The study demonstrates that contact between the Latin East and the West was far more complex than previously believed, and exposes for the first time the range and scale of the settlers' efforts to maintain Christian control of the Holy Land.
Brian Patrick McGuire
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- May 2021
- ISBN:
- 9781501751042
- eISBN:
- 9781501751554
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9781501751042.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Russian and Former Soviet Union History
This intimate portrait of one of the Middle Ages' most consequential men, delves into the life of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux to offer a refreshing interpretation that finds within this grand ...
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This intimate portrait of one of the Middle Ages' most consequential men, delves into the life of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux to offer a refreshing interpretation that finds within this grand historical figure a deeply spiritual human being who longed for the reflective quietude of the monastery even as he helped shape the destiny of a church and a continent. Heresy and crusade, politics and papacies, theology and disputation shaped this astonishing man's life, and this book presents it all. Following Bernard from his birth in 1090 to his death in 1153 at the abbey he had founded four decades earlier, the book reveals a life teeming with momentous events and spiritual contemplation, from Bernard's central roles in the first great medieval reformation of the Church and the Second Crusade, which he came to regret, to the crafting of his books, sermons, and letters. We see what brought Bernard to monastic life and how he founded Clairvaux Abbey, established a network of Cistercian monasteries across Europe, and helped his brethren monks and abbots in heresy trials, affairs of state, and the papal schism of the 1130s. By re-evaluating Bernard's life and legacy through his own words and those of the people closest to him, the book reveals how this often-challenging saint saw himself and conveyed his convictions to others. Above all, the biography depicts Saint Bernard of Clairvaux as a man guided by Christian revelation and open to the achievements of the human spirit.Less
This intimate portrait of one of the Middle Ages' most consequential men, delves into the life of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux to offer a refreshing interpretation that finds within this grand historical figure a deeply spiritual human being who longed for the reflective quietude of the monastery even as he helped shape the destiny of a church and a continent. Heresy and crusade, politics and papacies, theology and disputation shaped this astonishing man's life, and this book presents it all. Following Bernard from his birth in 1090 to his death in 1153 at the abbey he had founded four decades earlier, the book reveals a life teeming with momentous events and spiritual contemplation, from Bernard's central roles in the first great medieval reformation of the Church and the Second Crusade, which he came to regret, to the crafting of his books, sermons, and letters. We see what brought Bernard to monastic life and how he founded Clairvaux Abbey, established a network of Cistercian monasteries across Europe, and helped his brethren monks and abbots in heresy trials, affairs of state, and the papal schism of the 1130s. By re-evaluating Bernard's life and legacy through his own words and those of the people closest to him, the book reveals how this often-challenging saint saw himself and conveyed his convictions to others. Above all, the biography depicts Saint Bernard of Clairvaux as a man guided by Christian revelation and open to the achievements of the human spirit.
Jonathan Phillips
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198205401
- eISBN:
- 9780191676611
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205401.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History
The triumph of the First Crusade led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. The relationship between the Latin East and western Europe in the years between the major ...
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The triumph of the First Crusade led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. The relationship between the Latin East and western Europe in the years between the major crusading expeditions of the 12th century has been given very little attention by historians. In 1119, Muslim forces heavily defeated the army of Prince Roger of Antioch at the Battle of the Field of Blood in northern Syria. This was a terrible blow to the Christians. The papal appeals of 1157, 1165, 1166, 1169, 1173, 1181, 1184, and 1187 also indicate concern for the plight of the Latin East in western Europe. The issue of financial help for the settlers was clearly an important aspect of their relationship with the West, although little information on the subject remains.Less
The triumph of the First Crusade led to the establishment of a Latin Christian community in the Levant. The relationship between the Latin East and western Europe in the years between the major crusading expeditions of the 12th century has been given very little attention by historians. In 1119, Muslim forces heavily defeated the army of Prince Roger of Antioch at the Battle of the Field of Blood in northern Syria. This was a terrible blow to the Christians. The papal appeals of 1157, 1165, 1166, 1169, 1173, 1181, 1184, and 1187 also indicate concern for the plight of the Latin East in western Europe. The issue of financial help for the settlers was clearly an important aspect of their relationship with the West, although little information on the subject remains.
George E. Demacopoulos
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- January 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780823284429
- eISBN:
- 9780823285976
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823284429.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History
This book employs postcolonial critique to analyze the transformations of Greek and Latin religious identity in the wake of the Fourth Crusade. Through close readings of texts from the period of ...
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This book employs postcolonial critique to analyze the transformations of Greek and Latin religious identity in the wake of the Fourth Crusade. Through close readings of texts from the period of Latin occupation, the book argues that the experience of colonization splintered the Greek community over how best to respond to the Latin other while illuminating the mechanisms by which Western Christians authorized and exploited the Christian East. The experience of colonial subjugation opened permanent fissures within the Orthodox community, which struggled to develop a consistent response to aggressive demands for submission to the Roman Church. This internal fracturing has done more lasting damage to the modern Orthodox Church than any material act perpetrated by the crusaders. Ultimately, the statements of Greek and Latin religious polemic that emerged in the context of the Fourth Crusade should be interpreted as having been produced in a colonial setting and, as such, reveal more about the political, economic, and cultural uncertainty of communities in conflict than they offer genuine theological insight.Less
This book employs postcolonial critique to analyze the transformations of Greek and Latin religious identity in the wake of the Fourth Crusade. Through close readings of texts from the period of Latin occupation, the book argues that the experience of colonization splintered the Greek community over how best to respond to the Latin other while illuminating the mechanisms by which Western Christians authorized and exploited the Christian East. The experience of colonial subjugation opened permanent fissures within the Orthodox community, which struggled to develop a consistent response to aggressive demands for submission to the Roman Church. This internal fracturing has done more lasting damage to the modern Orthodox Church than any material act perpetrated by the crusaders. Ultimately, the statements of Greek and Latin religious polemic that emerged in the context of the Fourth Crusade should be interpreted as having been produced in a colonial setting and, as such, reveal more about the political, economic, and cultural uncertainty of communities in conflict than they offer genuine theological insight.
Jean Dunbabin
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198222910
- eISBN:
- 9780191678523
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198222910.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History, History of Religion
While he was at Avignon, on March 27 1329, Pierre was appointed Patriarch of Jerusalem, a venerable title of high prestige. The deciding factor in Pierre's acceptance was the hope, current in the ...
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While he was at Avignon, on March 27 1329, Pierre was appointed Patriarch of Jerusalem, a venerable title of high prestige. The deciding factor in Pierre's acceptance was the hope, current in the second half of the 1320s, that the Mameluk sultan of Egypt, al-Nazir Muhammed, might negotiate a settlement with the Latins permitting them to return to Palestine. When Pierre became patriarch, the prospect was entertained in Avignon of his restoration to the see in Jerusalem and his consequent government of the Latin Church throughout Outremer. He was allowed to celebrate mass everywhere and to dispense in cases of secret baptisms or other sacraments conducted without due ceremony. The second section of this chapter describes the plans for the Crusade and Other Business, after Pierre halted at Avignon to give Pope John his report concluding that war was the only remaining means of recovering the Holy Land.Less
While he was at Avignon, on March 27 1329, Pierre was appointed Patriarch of Jerusalem, a venerable title of high prestige. The deciding factor in Pierre's acceptance was the hope, current in the second half of the 1320s, that the Mameluk sultan of Egypt, al-Nazir Muhammed, might negotiate a settlement with the Latins permitting them to return to Palestine. When Pierre became patriarch, the prospect was entertained in Avignon of his restoration to the see in Jerusalem and his consequent government of the Latin Church throughout Outremer. He was allowed to celebrate mass everywhere and to dispense in cases of secret baptisms or other sacraments conducted without due ceremony. The second section of this chapter describes the plans for the Crusade and Other Business, after Pierre halted at Avignon to give Pope John his report concluding that war was the only remaining means of recovering the Holy Land.
Jean Dunbabin
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198222910
- eISBN:
- 9780191678523
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198222910.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, European Medieval History, History of Religion
While the theologians wrangled, plans for the crusade went on apace. To this end, the patriarch and King Philip VI worked hand-in-glove and they were rewarded by early victories. But during the ...
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While the theologians wrangled, plans for the crusade went on apace. To this end, the patriarch and King Philip VI worked hand-in-glove and they were rewarded by early victories. But during the course of 1335, Philip's concentration on Palestine began to be threatened by King Edward III's challenge to his throne. At the end of 1336, the pope converted postponement of the crusade into cancellation, and revoked the 1333 grant of a six-year tenth on clerical property, insisting that funds already collected should be returned. The loss of Limassol and Cambrai, along with Pierre's appointment to the diminutive Couserans, led to speculations that the patriarch had already fallen foul of Benedict XII on the issue of the Dominican constitution. On January 31 1342, the patriarch died. He was buried at St Jacques. Within his own order, his reputation as a great teacher and preacher survived for at least two centuries.Less
While the theologians wrangled, plans for the crusade went on apace. To this end, the patriarch and King Philip VI worked hand-in-glove and they were rewarded by early victories. But during the course of 1335, Philip's concentration on Palestine began to be threatened by King Edward III's challenge to his throne. At the end of 1336, the pope converted postponement of the crusade into cancellation, and revoked the 1333 grant of a six-year tenth on clerical property, insisting that funds already collected should be returned. The loss of Limassol and Cambrai, along with Pierre's appointment to the diminutive Couserans, led to speculations that the patriarch had already fallen foul of Benedict XII on the issue of the Dominican constitution. On January 31 1342, the patriarch died. He was buried at St Jacques. Within his own order, his reputation as a great teacher and preacher survived for at least two centuries.
