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Epilogue

Maurice Wiles

in Archetypal Heresy: Arianism Through the Centuries

Poses a question that the preceding historical survey raises for contemporary faith. Orthodox Trinitarianism, and the Nicene Creed in which it finds classical expression, were hammered out in the ... More

Poses a question that the preceding historical survey raises for contemporary faith. Orthodox Trinitarianism, and the Nicene Creed in which it finds classical expression, were hammered out in the course of the fourth‐century debate with Arianism. How far does the revised understanding of that debate, to which modern historical study points, put in question the kind of authority that traditional faith has normally ascribed to its outcome? The eighteenth century was able to pursue the issues in terms close to that of the original debate, because its understanding of the world and of the nature of scripture was closer to that of the fourth century than to that of the twenty‐first. Is the historical survey outlined in the book one where historical study should be freeing us from being too closely bound by our historical past?Less

Understanding US Opposition to the ICC

Jason Ralph

in Defending the Society of States: Why America Opposes the International Criminal Court and its Vision of World Society

This chapter explains why the Clinton administration chose to sign, and the Bush administration chose to ‘unsign’ the Rome Treaty. Both argued that the Treaty violated the principle of sovereign ... More

This chapter explains why the Clinton administration chose to sign, and the Bush administration chose to ‘unsign’ the Rome Treaty. Both argued that the Treaty violated the principle of sovereign consent and they both appealed to Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties to support their argument. The chapter then asks why the US finds this argument so compelling when other democratic states are not threatened by the Court. The chapter offers an answer that goes beyond arguments that focus on America's national interests and its international responsibilities. Instead, it focuses on the cultural role that democratic consent plays in constituting America as a separate nation. The policy of opposing the ICC while offering alternative approaches to international criminal justice is, therefore, a representational practice designed to instantiate a particular image of America as well as a political move to protect the national interest.Less

Nicaea

Sara Parvis

in Marcellus of Ancyra and the Lost Years of the Arian Controversy 325-345

This chapter examines the evidence for membership of the two alliances which squared up against one another before Nicaea, including the names and numbers on both sides, and the degree to which ... More

This chapter examines the evidence for membership of the two alliances which squared up against one another before Nicaea, including the names and numbers on both sides, and the degree to which nameable individuals committed themselves politically. The theological affinities and differences of Alexander of Alexandria’s allies are studied, particularly those of Marcellus with each of the rest. The significance of the initial calling of the ‘great and priestly synod’ for Ancyra rather than Nicaea is considered. It is argued that the synod was not originally called by Constantine but by the pro-Alexander alliance, and moved by him to his own palace to promote peace. The Synod of Antioch is discussed and dated to 324. It is argued that Marcellus had little influence on the Nicene Creed, which was not characteristic of his theology and which he never defended, but probably rather more on the canons of Nicaea.Less

Rome and Serdica

Sara Parvis

in Marcellus of Ancyra and the Lost Years of the Arian Controversy 325-345

This chapter examines the moves toward a second Ecumenical Council in the years after the second depositions of Athanasius and Marcellus. Constantius’ brother, Constans, is presented as a central ... More

This chapter examines the moves toward a second Ecumenical Council in the years after the second depositions of Athanasius and Marcellus. Constantius’ brother, Constans, is presented as a central figure in the negotiations, perhaps from as early as 340. It is argued that the decisions of the Synod of Rome, here dated to Spring 341, were not intended to be binding on the East in the absence of any Eastern bishops, but merely addressed the local problem of whether or not to continue to treat Athanasius and Marcellus as bishops in the absence of convincing evidence that they had been validly deposed. The works written by Athanasius and Marcellus in Rome at this time, the First Oration against the Arians, the Letter to Julius, and probably On the Holy Church (De Sancta Ecclesia), are examined. It is argued that all draw on a statement agreed between the two concerning a heresy, which Athanasius calls the Arian heresy and Marcellus calls Ariomania. The signatories and documents of the Eastern and Western synods of Serdica are minutely examined, and argued to show that the two alliances were now in a process of realignment. Marcellus and Athanasius were in fundamental disagreement over whether or not to issue a statement adding to the Nicene Creed, and most of the Easterners were not in as intransigent a mood as the letter written in their name might suggest. Marcellus withdrew from public engagement with the controversy shortly afterwards to obviate the need to choose between a breach with Athanasius or with his own pupil Photinus of Sirmium. He died nearly 30 years later in communion with the former, without ever having condemned the latter.Less

The ‘Arianism’ of the ‘Eusebians’

David M. Gwynn

in The Eusebians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the `Arian Controversy'

This chapter assesses Athanasius’ presentation of the ‘Eusebians’ as ‘Arian’. After a brief introduction to Athanasius’ highly polarized heresiological polemic, it traces Athanasius’ construction of ... More

This chapter assesses Athanasius’ presentation of the ‘Eusebians’ as ‘Arian’. After a brief introduction to Athanasius’ highly polarized heresiological polemic, it traces Athanasius’ construction of the ‘Arianism’ which he imposes upon his opponents. A comparison between this ‘Athanasian Arianism’, the doctrines of Arius himself, and the known doctrines of Eusebius of Nicomedia and Asterius ‘the Sophist’ reveals that these two alleged ‘Eusebians’ differ theologically both from Arius’ and from Athanasius’ definition of ‘Arianism’. Indeed, Eusebius and Asterius appear to have been representative of a widespread theological position held by a significant number of eastern bishops in the first half of the 4th century, a theology expressed above all by the ‘Dedication Creed’ of the Council of Antioch in 341. The chapter then turns to the methodology through which Athanasius created his distorted polarized construct of the ‘Arian Controversy’, and concludes with a brief assessment of how this construct influences Athanasius’ interpretation of the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed.Less

Credo

Aviad Kleinberg

in The Sensual God: How the Senses Make the Almighty Senseless

Where the question of why people believe unbelievable things is raised.

Theological Definitions

Richard Swinburne

in Revelation: From Metaphor to Analogy

Christian doctrinal definitions (e.g., creeds) try to state doctrines in as precise a way as possible, using words — as far as possible — in literal senses. But they incorporate presuppositions which ... More

Christian doctrinal definitions (e.g., creeds) try to state doctrines in as precise a way as possible, using words — as far as possible — in literal senses. But they incorporate presuppositions which need to be siphoned off, for example, the Nicene Creed's presupposition that the Universe consists of ‘the sky’ (Heaven) and the Earth. And they often use words in analogical and metaphorical senses. Examples of the latter in the Nicene creed are its description of the relation of the Son to the Father as ‘light from light’, and of Jesus ‘sitting’ ‘at the right hand of the Father’.Less

 Civilization and the Limits of Mission: Critical Pillar

Lamin Sanneh

in Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christianity

Synopsis: The chapter examines Christianity's formative Western assimilation as a prelude to its overseas post‐Western development. The chapter turns to Roland Allen and the stirrings in China to ... More

Synopsis: The chapter examines Christianity's formative Western assimilation as a prelude to its overseas post‐Western development. The chapter turns to Roland Allen and the stirrings in China to disentangle Western civilization from Christian civilization, and to show how cultural assimilation falls short of radical conversion. The material, technical infrastructure of mission hindered access in hinterland regions, and impeded the training of local leaders. The chapter recalls the Gentile basis of affirming non‐Western cultures and values. The chapter shifts to Vincent Donovan and the Catholic response to Allen. Donovan agrees with Allen, and calls for changes in Catholic missionary practice, restating the missionary mandate by redefining creed and church. The chapter presents outlines of the Maasai African Creed as an example of the indigenous discovery of the Gospel, showing how that results in Christianity being rediscovered. That is the background of the worldwide resurgence.Less

The Gospel in Ancient Christian Churches

Ted A. Campbell

in The Gospel in Christian Traditions

This chapter discusses the ways in which the gospel message was transmitted in ancient Christian churches that survive today, specifically, the Catholic (or “Roman Catholic”) Church, Eastern Orthodox ... More

This chapter discusses the ways in which the gospel message was transmitted in ancient Christian churches that survive today, specifically, the Catholic (or “Roman Catholic”) Church, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Assyrian Church of the East. The chapter shows three ways in which the gospel message is transmitted in these churches: through their creeds, and especially the Nicene Creed; through the liturgy (also called the eucharist, the Mass, or the Divine Liturgy); and through the cycle of the liturgical year in which the events of Christ’s life are celebrated.Less

The Gospel and the Ecumenical Movement

Ted A. Campbell

in The Gospel in Christian Traditions

Chapter 5 explores how the gospel message has been received and affirmed in the ecumenical movement, the movement from the twentieth century that has sought the “visible unity” of Christian churches. ... More

Chapter 5 explores how the gospel message has been received and affirmed in the ecumenical movement, the movement from the twentieth century that has sought the “visible unity” of Christian churches. The chapter shows that the gospel has been transmitted in the ecumenical movement through discussions and agreed statements about the unity of scripture and tradition; through the affirmation of the “apostolic faith” as it has been confessed in traditional creeds, especially the Nicene Creed; and in ecumenical liturgical reforms, that is, changes in forms of Christian worship that reflect the concerns of the ecumenical movement.Less

Trinitarian Debates from Nicaea (325) to Sirmium (351)

Carl L. Beckwith

in Hilary of Poitiers on the Trinity: From De Fide to De Trinitate

This chapter discusses the Trinitarian debates from the Council of Nicaea (325) to the synod of Sirmium (351) and the emergence of the creed from Nicaea in the West as a standard of orthodoxy.

Three and One

John Finnis

in Religion and Public Reasons: Collected Essays Volume V

This chapter offers an unpublished Trinity Sunday 1988 college Evensong sermon taking off from the Petrine sermon in the Evensong readings for that day, about ‘the revelation of Jesus Christ’ and ... More

This chapter offers an unpublished Trinity Sunday 1988 college Evensong sermon taking off from the Petrine sermon in the Evensong readings for that day, about ‘the revelation of Jesus Christ’ and ‘the Holy Spirit sent from heaven’. The chapter's core is on the nine Trinitarian affirmations in which Newman sums up the so-called Athanasian Creed, which he regarded as Christianity's most simple, sublime, and devotional formulary. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the nature and practical significance of doctrinal propositions such as these.Less

‘Ista est Jerusalem’. Intertextuality and Visual Exegesis in Peter of Poitiers’ Compendium historiae in genealogia Christi and Werner Rolevinck’s Fasciculus temporum

Andrea Worm

in Imagining Jerusalem in the Medieval West

This chapter analyses the circular plan of Jerusalem in Peter of Poitiers' Compendium historiae in genealogia Christi, a synopsis of history widely disseminated and frequently adapted. The plan of ... More

This chapter analyses the circular plan of Jerusalem in Peter of Poitiers' Compendium historiae in genealogia Christi, a synopsis of history widely disseminated and frequently adapted. The plan of Jerusalem reveals how Peter of Poitiers modified and fused different sources, including Peter Comestor's Historia scholastica, to create a visually persuasive image of perfect formal and social order, with six gates foreshadowing the twelve gates of the Heavenly Jerusalem. The visual alignment of the plan of Jerusalem and other diagrams in the Compendium prompts the beholder to reflect on analogies of structures and events, and thus on the order and meaning of history. This argument extends to the late fifteenth-century diagram of the heavenly Jerusalem in Werner Rolewinck's Fasciculus temporum, which functions at the same time as a visualization of the Creed and as an allegorical image of the church, predetermined and eternal.Less

Implications for Theology; Christianity in a Nutshell

Anna Wierzbicka

in What Did Jesus Mean?: Explaining the Sermon on the Mount and the Parables in Simple and Universal Human Concepts

This chapter argues that theology needs a new language. It adduces quotes from various recent publications that show that after two millennia the meaning of Jesus’ words has become for many people in ... More

This chapter argues that theology needs a new language. It adduces quotes from various recent publications that show that after two millennia the meaning of Jesus’ words has become for many people in the West increasingly difficult to grasp, and it concurs with Raymond Brown's (1975) words referring not only to the Scriptures but also to the dogmas of the Church that since “God's revelation has been phrased by men” it requires constant rethinking. This rethinking must take into account the historical situation, the culture, the language, and the theological and philosophical limitations of those who wrote and those who interpreted the Bible. The chapter discusses the cultural underpinnings of the Nicene Creed, and offers an attempt at rethinking this Creed and restating it in a narrative form, in simple words available in all languages of the world. It argues that Christian faith must be expressible in all languages, including those that do not have the traditional Christian vocabulary and it formulates “Christian faith in a nutshell” in a radically new form, on the basis of empirical universals of language.Less

Canonical Division Between East and West

William J. Abraham

in Canon and Criterion in Christian Theology: From the Fathers to Feminism

The long, drawn‐out‐division between Eastern and Western Christianity, the Great Schism, arose, in part, because of the addition of the filioque clause to the Nicene Creed. In and around this, the ... More

The long, drawn‐out‐division between Eastern and Western Christianity, the Great Schism, arose, in part, because of the addition of the filioque clause to the Nicene Creed. In and around this, the Western Church introduced radical changes in the status of the bishop of Rome and in the list of Fathers. Both these developments represent a move to bring epistemology into the very heart of the Church. Thus the division between East and West was more than a political operation; it involved subtle changes in the way the canonical heritage of the Church was identified and construed. In particular, the informal adoption of papal infallibility marked a radical shift in perspective within the life of the Church as a whole.Less

The Life and Times of Marius Victorinus

Stephen Andrew Cooper

in Marius Victorinus' Commentary on Galatians

This chapter discusses the ancient testimonia to Victorinus, and reconstructs a probable vita of Victorinus. A professor of rhetoric at Rome who authored important school-treatises, and a translator ... More

This chapter discusses the ancient testimonia to Victorinus, and reconstructs a probable vita of Victorinus. A professor of rhetoric at Rome who authored important school-treatises, and a translator of Neoplatonic writings (the libri Platonicorum mentioned by Augustine) and Aristotelian works, Victorinus was a significant late Roman academic whose secular works had an influence in his own time and on Boethius, as well as later medieval scholasticism. The events of the Trinitarian Controversy at Rome during the reign of Constantius II are examined to situate Victorinus in this milieu. After converting to Christianity c. 355, Victorinus continued teaching rhetoric until the Emperor Julian’s school-law of 362 interdicted Christians from holding state professorial posts. The anti-Christian initiatives undertaken by Julian, as well as earlier anti-Christian polemics, may have contributed to Victorinus’ agenda as he began to write his commentaries on Paul, probably not earlier than late 363.Less

Situating Victorinus' Commentaries on Paul

Stephen Andrew Cooper

in Marius Victorinus' Commentary on Galatians

This chapter surveys the various hypotheses suggested by scholars for establishing Victorinus’ motivations for commenting on the Pauline corpus. Reader-response criticism is employed to elucidate ... More

This chapter surveys the various hypotheses suggested by scholars for establishing Victorinus’ motivations for commenting on the Pauline corpus. Reader-response criticism is employed to elucidate Victorinus’ intentions toward his audience. The dating of the commentaries, in relation to that of his Trinitarian treatises, is closely examined. Two major thematic complexes emerge from a reading of the extant commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians: the Trinitarian Controversy; and justification by faith, often accompanied by polemics against Judaizing Christians. Victorinus’ concern to articulate an understanding of God and Christ consonant with the creed of Nicea is patent, but the attempt to identify that concern as the major motivation for his authorship of the commentaries is unconvincing. Victorinus’ frequent polemics against Jewish practices derives his own concern about Christians engaged in Judaizing — such Judaizing being well-documented by a variety of fourth-century sources. Victorinus’ pioneering employment of the formulation ‘faith alone’ (sola fides) and his understanding of justification by faith does not reach the point of Augustine’s anti-Pelagian exegesis but is not itself reducible to an incipient Pelagianism.Less