Search Results

Mediation in Eusebius of Caesarea

Jon M. Robertson

in Christ as Mediator: A Study of the Theologies of Eusebius of Caesarea, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Athanasius of Alexandria

This chapter analyses Eusebius of Caesarea's understanding of the radical transcendence of God the Father, which influenced his view of the Word as an intervening mediator between the Father and the ... More

This chapter analyses Eusebius of Caesarea's understanding of the radical transcendence of God the Father, which influenced his view of the Word as an intervening mediator between the Father and the created world. It argues that his concept of mediation is necessarily a ‘deictic’ one, i.e., one in which the mediator — while similar to that which it images — is not to be identified with it in any fundamental way. This is particularly evident in his presentation of ‘image’ theology. He favoured the illustration of image for the Father/Son relationship because he felt it pictured their similarity and non-identity, as well as described the eternal soteriological function of the Son in mediating knowledge of the Father. His comprehension of the Incarnation was that it reflected, at a new but not qualitatively different level, the ongoing mediating function of the Word.Less

Trinitarian Debates from Nicaea (325) to Sirmium (351)

Carl L. Beckwith

in Hilary of Poitiers on the Trinity: From De Fide to De Trinitate

This chapter discusses the Trinitarian debates from the Council of Nicaea (325) to the synod of Sirmium (351) and the emergence of the creed from Nicaea in the West as a standard of orthodoxy.

Patriarchs, Councils, and Controversies: 300–451

William, S.J. Harmless

in Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism

The patriarchs of Alexandria would cast long shadows over the history of Egyptian monasticism. This chapter focuses on the five most influential: Alexander, Athanasius, Theophilus, Cyril, and ... More

The patriarchs of Alexandria would cast long shadows over the history of Egyptian monasticism. This chapter focuses on the five most influential: Alexander, Athanasius, Theophilus, Cyril, and Dioscorus. It surveys both their careers and their theological controversies, especially their doctrine-defining clashes at the ecumenical Councils of Nicaea, Ephesus, and Chalcedon. This chapter provides critical historical and theological background, since the politics and theologies of the bishops of Alexandria figure prominently in early monastic literature, and their international prominence would help draw the world’s attention to Egypt and its monks.Less

The Council at Serdica

Hamilton Hess

in The Early Development of Canon Law and the Council of Serdica

The failure of the attempted settlement of the dispute over the teachings of Arius by the Council of Nicaea in 325 resulted in intense turmoil within the Church during the decades to follow, and this ... More

The failure of the attempted settlement of the dispute over the teachings of Arius by the Council of Nicaea in 325 resulted in intense turmoil within the Church during the decades to follow, and this was greatly exacerbated by the division of the Empire after the death of Constantine and the differing ecclesiastical policies of his heirs. Following the deposition of Athanasius and other bishops by the partisans of Arius and their restoration by a council at Rome in 341, a council to resolve the doctrinal differences and personal grievances was convened by permission of the emperors to meet at Serdica in 343. Upon arrival at Serdica, the Eastern bishops, largely sympathetic with the anti‐Nicene party, refused to meet with the Westerns, and two rival councils were held. The Western council confirmed the restoration of Athanasius and his companions at Rome in 341, considered but rejected a new creed, wrote an encyclical and other letters, resolved a dispute over the dating of Easter, and enacted the canons that we are here considering; the Eastern council reapproved the Fourth Creed of Antioch, drafted a paschal cycle, wrote an encyclical condemning Athanasius and his associates and all who had entered into communion with them. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of the life of Ossius of Cordova, who presided over the Western council and was also the leading figure in the framing of the Serdican canons.Less

The Meeting of the Council

Susan Wessel

in Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic

This chapter examines the proceedings at Ephesus I, including the problems of ecclesiastical procedure raised by the council; its relationship to the Council of Nicaea; the role of the emperor in ... More

This chapter examines the proceedings at Ephesus I, including the problems of ecclesiastical procedure raised by the council; its relationship to the Council of Nicaea; the role of the emperor in conveying an ecumenical proceeding; and the problems of authority implicit in two opposing councils held by the parties competing at Ephesus I.Less

The Letters to Boniface and Petronius

Alden A. Mosshammer

in The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era

The Easter‐table of Dionysius Exiguus was the continuation of a 95‐year list he attributes to Cyril of Alexandria. He describes his work in two letters—one to Boniface and Bonus written in AD 525/6 ... More

The Easter‐table of Dionysius Exiguus was the continuation of a 95‐year list he attributes to Cyril of Alexandria. He describes his work in two letters—one to Boniface and Bonus written in AD 525/6 in response to a question, the other written in 524/5 addressed to Petronius, at whose behest Dionysius undertook his work. The letter to Petronius serves as an introduction to the 95‐year Easter‐table. Dionysius explains and defends the mathematical accuracy of the Alexandrian 19‐year cycle as arising not from human inventiveness, but from the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. He claims that the Council of Nicaea explicitly authorized the 19‐ year cycle and promulgated rules for it use that the patriarchs of Alexandria from Athanasius to Cyril careffihly guarded.Less

Nicene Orthodoxy

Andrew Louth

in The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys

The Council of Nicaea, held in 325, marks a watershed in the history of Christian theology. The precise nature of the difference between the Orthodox and the Arians, between Alexander and Athanasius, ... More

The Council of Nicaea, held in 325, marks a watershed in the history of Christian theology. The precise nature of the difference between the Orthodox and the Arians, between Alexander and Athanasius, on the one hand, and Arius, on the other, has been the subject of much scholarly debate. The point of difference is clear: for the Orthodox the Word or the Son was of one substance (homoousios) with the Father, for the Arians he was a creature, albeit a very exalted one.Less

The Council of Nicaea and Its Early Reception

Mark S. Smith

in The Idea of Nicaea in the Early Church Councils, AD 431-451

This chapter sets the scene for the various appeals to Nicaea during the Nestorian controversy, by analysing the nature of Nicaea’s earlier reception. It begins by examining the Council of Nicaea ... More

This chapter sets the scene for the various appeals to Nicaea during the Nestorian controversy, by analysing the nature of Nicaea’s earlier reception. It begins by examining the Council of Nicaea itself, and the terminology of the Creed. It then explains how attempts to replace Nicaea with superior councils and creeds during the 340s and 350s were gradually eclipsed by the widespread acceptance of the Athanasian polemic of Nicaea’s unique authority and sole sufficiency. Athanasius’ spirited ‘re-reception’ of Nicaea, however, itself necessitated an uneasy reshaping of the Nicene past, and served to raise more sharply the dilemma of how the Nicene Creed’s status could be preserved amidst the increasing inadequacy of its text to speak into new doctrinal controversies. This analysis is extended into the early fifth century, and identifies a growing tension between the rhetorical focus on Nicaea’s textual sufficiency and the more fluid use of Nicene credal statements ‘on the ground’.Less

“To Please the Overseer of All”: The Emperor's Involvement and the Politicization of Theology

Carlos R. Galvão-Sobrinho

in Doctrine and Power: Theological Controversy and Christian Leadership in the Later Roman Empire

Chapter 6 deals with the impact on the controversy of Constantine's intervention and the “criminalization” of doctrinal dissent following the proclamation of Nicene orthodoxy. Thereafter, theological ... More

Chapter 6 deals with the impact on the controversy of Constantine's intervention and the “criminalization” of doctrinal dissent following the proclamation of Nicene orthodoxy. Thereafter, theological positions became politically charged and dissent from orthodoxy, however that was defined, posed even more serious threats to prelates' claims to leadership.Less

The Idea of Nicaea in the Two Councils of Ephesus (431)

Mark S. Smith

in The Idea of Nicaea in the Early Church Councils, AD 431-451

This chapter begins by arguing that the debate between Nestorius and Cyril (428–31) was characterized by a deep concern for the authentic interpretation of the Nicene Creed. As the controversy grew, ... More

This chapter begins by arguing that the debate between Nestorius and Cyril (428–31) was characterized by a deep concern for the authentic interpretation of the Nicene Creed. As the controversy grew, it dramatically brought to the surface profound tensions in the inherited assumptions concerning the Nicene faith. This central Nicene theme is then traced through the complex conciliar events of 431. The two rival councils of Ephesus each developed mirroring strategies for defending their particular construal of the Nicene faith, and for portraying their opponents as heretical violators of its tenets. Particular emphasis is put on the way that both sides sought to employ carefully shaped conciliar documentation to advance their respective positions. This opened up new and fruitful discursive possibilities, especially in the attempts to show continuity between the events of 325 and 431.Less

The Idea of Nicaea at Chalcedon (451)

Mark S. Smith

in The Idea of Nicaea in the Early Church Councils, AD 431-451

The emperor Marcian sought at Chalcedon to solve the problem of Nicaea’s reception once and for all, by presenting his oecumenical council as not only the repetition, but also the completion, of ... More

The emperor Marcian sought at Chalcedon to solve the problem of Nicaea’s reception once and for all, by presenting his oecumenical council as not only the repetition, but also the completion, of Nicaea’s work—seen especially in his desire for the council to promulgate a new statement of faith. The chapter begins with several case studies from the Chalcedonian acta, which demonstrate how problematic the flexibility of ‘Nicaea’ as a cypher of orthodoxy had become by 451. The chapter then explores Marcian’s attempt to make his case for a new ‘Definition’ of the faith to the bishops at Chalcedon. For instance, by re-narrating the Nicene past to include the contribution of Constantinople 381, Marcian provided a precedent for further credal statements, and so blunted the force of ‘Canon 7’ (according to its construal at Ephesus II). The Chalcedonian acta, however, suggest that Marcian met with substantial episcopal opposition in his endeavour, precisely because he was seen as violating Nicaea’s unique status. The chapter then considers the Definition itself, and its earliest reception.Less

Early Textual Transmission and Development

Hamilton Hess

in The Early Development of Canon Law and the Council of Serdica

Addresses three textual problems: the transmission of the Latin text of the Serdican canons, the early history of the Greek text and its differences from the Latin, and the derivation of a third ... More

Addresses three textual problems: the transmission of the Latin text of the Serdican canons, the early history of the Greek text and its differences from the Latin, and the derivation of a third textual version of the canons known as the version of Theodosius Diaconus. All evidence points towards the probability that the Latin text of the canons arrived in Rome shortly after the Serdican council and that they were soon mistakenly identified as acts of the Council of Nicaea. It seems likely that the Greek text was first taken to Thessalonica and remained unknown elsewhere for over half a century. It is demonstrated in this chapter that by the use of the textual analyses in the chapters to follow the several instances of different meanings between the Greek and Latin texts in parallel passages were probably caused by later scribal or editorial changes, some accidental and others purposeful, in both the Greek and the Latin. The version of Theodosius Diaconus is an early Latin translation from the Greek text, which provides valuable evidence for the relationship between the Greek and the Latin.Less

Easter and the Passover Moon

Alden A. Mosshammer

in The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era

Jesus was crucified at the time of the Passover. Passover is observed on the 14th day of the first month, when the springtime crop is ripe. In a lunar calendar, the 14th day of the month is a full ... More

Jesus was crucified at the time of the Passover. Passover is observed on the 14th day of the first month, when the springtime crop is ripe. In a lunar calendar, the 14th day of the month is a full moon. Some communities commemorated the Passion on the 14th day of the moon, regardless of the calendar date (Quartodecimans). Others observed Easter on a Sunday at the approximate time of the full moon. The Council of Nicaea (AD 325) endorsed the latter practice and provided that all should defer to the churches at Rome and Alexandria for the determination of the date. Those churches had adopted a cycle for coordinating the phases of the moon with the vernal equinox. The earliest such cycle equated eight Julian years with 99 lunar months. What ultimately became the standard cycle equated 19 Julian years with 235 lunar months.Less

The Papacy and the Franks

Henry Chadwick

in East and West: The Making of a Rift in the Church: From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence

This chapter discusses the rising Frankish power and while becoming the principal political and military defense of the papacy's rights and property, the Franks were not sympathetic to the iconoclasm ... More

This chapter discusses the rising Frankish power and while becoming the principal political and military defense of the papacy's rights and property, the Franks were not sympathetic to the iconoclasm of Hiereia, neither were they in any serious rapport with the iconophiles. This chapter also discusses the debate about the propriety of venerating icons, the second Council of Nicaea being acknowledged to have the rank of an ‘ecumenical council’, iconoclast criticisms, and campaign against the authority of Nicaea II.Less

Constantine: Lactantius, Eusebius of Caesarea, Arius, and the Council of Nicaea

Henry Chadwick

in The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great

The new situation created by the rise to sole power of a Christian emperor was seen by many Christians as fulfilment of the prophecy that God's word would spread throughout the civilized world but ... More

The new situation created by the rise to sole power of a Christian emperor was seen by many Christians as fulfilment of the prophecy that God's word would spread throughout the civilized world but raised new questions about the unity of the Church. The Divine Institutes by Lactantius was directed against pagan philosophers and stressed the need for education about Christianity to put an end to persecution, while Eusebius of Caesarea wrote a panegyric of Constantine and about the superiority of biblical religion over paganism. However, the ‘subordinationist’ theology of Arius raised the fundamental problem of the Christian doctrine of God and was viewed by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, as a heresy for which toleration was not possible. The Council of Nicaea in 325, the largest assembly of bishops yet gathered, produced the Nicene Creed, the effects of which divided the eastern Church. It would now be taken as axiomatic that dissenters were to be excluded from the Church, without any minority rights.Less

Rereading the Council of Nicaea and Its Creed

Lincoln H. Blumell

in Standing Apart: Mormon Historical Consciousness and the Concept of Apostasy

This chapter contextualizes the production of the Nicene Creed by examining the primary documentary sources of the Council of Nicaea. LDS members have often cited the Nicene Creed as evidence of ... More

This chapter contextualizes the production of the Nicene Creed by examining the primary documentary sources of the Council of Nicaea. LDS members have often cited the Nicene Creed as evidence of ecclesial and doctrinal apostasy, but this chapter demonstrates that the bishops at the Council of Nicaea shared many theological concerns with Latter-day Saints, though they reached some different conclusions about the nature of Christ. It suggests that Latter-day Saints would profit from seeking to understand the development of Christian practices and doctrines within their theological, cultural, and political background before assessing points of accurate agreement or disagreement.Less

Differences in Theology

Henry Chadwick

in East and West: The Making of a Rift in the Church: From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence

After the churches of the West became Latin-speaking, difficulties about establishing terms equivalent terms such as Trinitas or ‘three persons in one substance’ began. The doctrine that Father, Son, ... More

After the churches of the West became Latin-speaking, difficulties about establishing terms equivalent terms such as Trinitas or ‘three persons in one substance’ began. The doctrine that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are different adjectives for describing aspects of one God. This chapter discusses the disagreements about the Trinity, the First Council of Nicaea and the Nicene creed, the Arian controversy, the Nicene and Serdican canons and Pope Damasus, who reaffirmed the authorization of the Nicene creed.Less