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Introduction

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

The introduction first explains Clarke’s importance as a science fiction writer, and justifies a new book about Clarke by noting that existing studies do not examine his final works or draw upon ... More

The introduction first explains Clarke’s importance as a science fiction writer, and justifies a new book about Clarke by noting that existing studies do not examine his final works or draw upon recently available resources. Yet it then argues that this book is primarily needed to provide, for the first time, a comprehensive and accurate overview of his career. Clarke has been misrepresented by critics who often impose upon him literary goals and motifs that were foreign to him, and commentators have failed to appreciate his distinctive views regarding inventions, space travel, humanity’s future evolution, aliens, the oceans, and religion. Clarke’s unique characters, who typically live in solitude and function principally as observers, have also not received the attention they deserve.Less

The Solitary Observer

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter argues that typical Clarke protagonists are not bland, but merely solitary and reticent men who primarily function as observers of events, not participants, as seen in Prelude to Space ... More

This chapter argues that typical Clarke protagonists are not bland, but merely solitary and reticent men who primarily function as observers of events, not participants, as seen in Prelude to Space (1951) and elsewhere. After early stories about completely isolated individuals, Clarke’s science fiction increasingly explores ways for these men to ameliorate their loneliness, such as important tasks, close male friendships, connections to larger communities, and families that are far away but remain in touch. Perhaps perceiving that Stanley Kubrick reshaped the film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) to criticize his characters as unemotional and unfulfilled, Clarke produced stories in the 1970s emphasizing that his characters, in 2001 and other works, are actually emotionally complex and perfectly content with their solitude.Less

Biographical Sketch

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter provides an overview of Clarke’s life, primarily drawn from Neil McAleer’s biography and Clarke’s reminiscences. It first notes the emergence in his childhood of the passions that ... More

This chapter provides an overview of Clarke’s life, primarily drawn from Neil McAleer’s biography and Clarke’s reminiscences. It first notes the emergence in his childhood of the passions that defined his career: devotion to space, the oceans, and science fiction; close relationships with males; and an urge to make money. After summarizing his World War II experiences and early career as a science fiction and science writer, the chapter theorizes that the 1952 arrest of British cryptographer Alan Turing for homosexual activity drove the closeted Clarke, fearing similar persecution for homosexuality, to get married and abandon Britain for Sri Lanka, although the allure of skin diving was also a factor. There, he remained active as an author and television personality until his death in 2008.Less

Human Destinies

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

Unlike other science fiction writers, this chapter explains, Clarke rarely envisions humanity colonizing interstellar space and forging a galactic empire, anticipating limitations on human ... More

Unlike other science fiction writers, this chapter explains, Clarke rarely envisions humanity colonizing interstellar space and forging a galactic empire, anticipating limitations on human development. Though unconcerned about nuclear wars or alien invasions, Clarke regularly predicts humanity’s extinction, due to climate change or competing new species, or long periods of decadence. If humans avoid these fates, evolution may transform them into a new species, unlike present-day humans. Such scenarios unfold in Clarke’s major novels about humanity’s destiny: in Against the Fall of Night (1953), revised as The City and the Stars (1956), residents of an unchanging future city rediscover their ambitions but still face eventual demise; and in Childhood’s End (1953) humans guided by alien Overlords become a group intelligence to join a transcendent Overmind.Less

Conclusion

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

The conclusion first notes evidence of continuing interest in Clarke’s science fiction and speculates that future readers may especially appreciate his work for two reasons. First, as space travel ... More

The conclusion first notes evidence of continuing interest in Clarke’s science fiction and speculates that future readers may especially appreciate his work for two reasons. First, as space travel becomes more commonplace, and more people are living in outer space, his plausible stories about space life may be of special interest to them. Second, in contrast to characters in other twentieth-century novels, who are primarily concerned with establishing and maintaining relationships, future readers, largely living in solitude, may better identify with Clarke’s isolated protagonists. Yet Clarke’s characters also seem unlike contemporary people in their calm focus on doing their jobs instead of obsessing about their personal problems or regarding themselves as victims. Yet this might also strike future readers as refreshing.Less

The Conquest of Space

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter describes how Clarke’s science fiction consistently advocates, and vividly depicts, humanity’s future achievements in space. Without providing a consistent “Future History,” his stories ... More

This chapter describes how Clarke’s science fiction consistently advocates, and vividly depicts, humanity’s future achievements in space. Without providing a consistent “Future History,” his stories collectively argue that humans will gradually colonize space stations, the moon, Mars, and other planets and moons, though humans may never advance beyond the solar system. Clarke unusually acknowledges the need for computers in space, and instead of featuring pioneering expeditions, he usually focuses on the everyday lives of space colonists, emphasizing both the perils of space life and its potential benefits, such as greater longevity. Living aliens are rarely encountered, though evidence of ancient aliens may be detected. Clarke’s major novel about human space travel, Imperial Earth (1975), explores life on Titan by chronicling a resident’s visit to Earth.Less

Jocular Juvenilia

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter argues that Clarke’s fiction falls into two categories: farcical pieces filled with adolescent humor--his juvenilia and later texts described as his “mature juvenilia”; and his ... More

This chapter argues that Clarke’s fiction falls into two categories: farcical pieces filled with adolescent humor--his juvenilia and later texts described as his “mature juvenilia”; and his professional science fiction, which manifests only occasional, and subdued, touches of humor. The young Clarke prefers parodies, puns, wordplay, and slapstick, and he displays a rather cruel sense of humor in jocularly describing various deaths and catastrophes. Yet some early works also show Clarke developing his skill in extrapolation and the development of future worlds as well as his interests in outer space and the oceans. Pieces recalling Clarke’s juvenilia surface through his career, and similar material may someday be discovered in his private journals.Less

Alien Encounters

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

While fascinated by aliens, this chapter explains, Clarke only occasionally depicts alien encounters, which are unlikely due to the universe’s size and age. Instead, science fiction stories involve ... More

While fascinated by aliens, this chapter explains, Clarke only occasionally depicts alien encounters, which are unlikely due to the universe’s size and age. Instead, science fiction stories involve humans discovering evidence of ancient aliens or signs of emerging alien intelligences. Clarke avoids engaging in world building, preferring planets investigated by scientists as settings, and his aliens typically are genuinely alien in both their physiology and psychology. In Clarke’s major novels about aliens they remain unseen. In 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and its sequels, aliens made of energy initially seem omnipotent, though sequels increasingly emphasize their flaws and limitations. The aliens of Rendezvous with Rama (1973) are even more mysterious and defy human efforts to understand their enormous space habitat and the purpose for its visit.Less

The Best of British?

Mike Ashley

in Transformations: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970; The History Of Science-Fiction Magazine

In 1950, issues of science fiction magazines outnumbered science fiction paperbacks in the United States. The opposite was true in Britain, as paper rationing during World War II meant an ... More

In 1950, issues of science fiction magazines outnumbered science fiction paperbacks in the United States. The opposite was true in Britain, as paper rationing during World War II meant an insufficient supply of paper, and starting any new serial publication was restricted. This situation led to the demise of fiction magazines, including the grandfather of them all, The Strand Magazine, which folded in March 1950. Britain's two premier science fiction magazines, New Worlds and Science-Fantasy, became the bedrock of high-quality science fiction in the country. Arthur C. Clarke, Eric Frank Russell, John Beynon Harris, John Christopher, and Charles Eric Maine represented a higher proportion of the rank and file of British science fiction writers than their American counterparts. British writers were especially fascinated with computers and automation.Less

Future Faiths

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter first notes that the atheist Clarke often criticizes religion in his science fiction: religions are false and illogical, based on imaginary events; deities are ineffectual; and doctrines ... More

This chapter first notes that the atheist Clarke often criticizes religion in his science fiction: religions are false and illogical, based on imaginary events; deities are ineffectual; and doctrines can lead to evil or misguided acts. For these reasons he regularly describes future humans who abandoned religion. Yet Clarke simultaneously acknowledges that some old and new faiths still have adherents, indicating they may be valuable in helping to preserve and expand human knowledge, providing peace of mind, and inspiring beneficial actions. Buddhism is particularly praised for its benign, tolerant attitudes. Clarke’s major novel involving religion, The Songs of Distant Earth (1986), describes an apparent utopia resulting from a future decision to eliminate all religious beliefs, yet there are still signs that some religions may endure.Less

Conclusion

George Slusser

in Gregory Benford

This conclusion considers one particular aspect of Gregory Benford's science fiction, an open process of creation, which means not only his interest in collaborating with other writers, but in ... More

This conclusion considers one particular aspect of Gregory Benford's science fiction, an open process of creation, which means not only his interest in collaborating with other writers, but in actually writing sequels to their work, in which he continues a story they started, and in the manner of a creative dialogue, blends his vision skillfully with theirs. One notable example is Beyond the Fall of Night (1990), a rewrite of Arthur C. Clarke's Against the Fall of Night (1953). Writing this novel seems to have spurred Benford, in turn, to write a sequel to his own sequel, the novel Beyond Infinity (2004). This chapter looks at Benford's collaborations with authors such as Gordon Eklund, William Rotsler, and David Brin, as well as his participation in the project known as the Second Foundation Trilogy, a series of novels that proposed to fill in gaps in Isaac Asimov's original Foundation cycle.Less

Things Fall Apart: Relativity, Distance and the Periphery

in Science Fiction and Empire

This chapter discusses the effect of practical science in the experimentations in the narrative. The present rationalization of our physical universe illustrates how improbable intergalactic travel ... More

This chapter discusses the effect of practical science in the experimentations in the narrative. The present rationalization of our physical universe illustrates how improbable intergalactic travel is. Actual scientific theories are extended to science fiction in the exploration of the galactic space. This text also looks into Imperial Earth, a novel by Arthur C. Clarke, as it discusses the spatial history, imperial production and the four models of the empire.Less

Under the Sea

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter describes how Clarke’s fascination with the oceans predates his skin diving career, as early stories convey that humans are drawn to and inspired by the sea, which played a key role in ... More

This chapter describes how Clarke’s fascination with the oceans predates his skin diving career, as early stories convey that humans are drawn to and inspired by the sea, which played a key role in human development. Later stories draw upon Clarke’s underwater experiences to rapturously describe undersea wonders; he occasionally argues that undersea creatures like dolphins and squids may be developing human-like intelligence; and he perceives similarities between life in the seas and life in space. In Clarke’s major novels about the oceans, the former astronaut of The Deep Range (1957) finds fulfillment in protecting Earth’s whales and other sea creatures, but The Ghost from the Grand Banks (1991) instead emphasizes how humans may never be able to fully understand, or master, this strange environment.Less

The Ends of First Sf: Pioneers as Veterans

in Solar Flares: Science Fiction in the 1970s

The early science fiction genre centred on stories that combined adventure with scientific marvels. Ideas were often more important than characters or themes. This chapter focuses on the works of ... More

The early science fiction genre centred on stories that combined adventure with scientific marvels. Ideas were often more important than characters or themes. This chapter focuses on the works of science fiction writers who had started publishing by 1941: Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, Robert A. Heinlein, Ray Bradbury, Clifford D. Simak, Leigh Brackett and Alfred Bester. Aside from Brackett, all of these writers carried on into the 1980s in essentially the same manner as they had appeared on the scene in the 1970s. Clarke, Asimov and Heinlein all turned to sequels; Asimov and Heinlein made an attempt to weave their novels into a single narrative.Less

Straight, Gay, or Binary?: Hal Comes Out of the Cybernetic Closet

Mark Dery

in I Must Not Think Bad Thoughts: Drive-by Essays on American Dread, American Dreams

This chapter addresses the sexuality of HAL, the psychotic supercomputer in the sci-fi classic 2001. HAL is a brainchild of Alan Turing, the British mathematician who helped create history’s first ... More

This chapter addresses the sexuality of HAL, the psychotic supercomputer in the sci-fi classic 2001. HAL is a brainchild of Alan Turing, the British mathematician who helped create history’s first working electronic digital computer, Colossus, and whose vision in 1936 of a “universal” computing machine made the PC possible. Turing was a publicly exposed (though wholly unrepentant) homosexual in 1950s England, where homosexuality was an illegal “gross indecency,” viewed with undisguised loathing by straight society. HAL, like his creator, is “disturbed,” pushed over the edge by what Arthur C. Clarke calls “unconscious feelings of guilt” and the cognitive dissonance of “living a lie.” The question that arises then is: Was HAL gay? And if HAL could cry digital tears, as the artificial intelligence theorist Rosalind Picard speculates in Hal’s Legacy: “2001’s” Computer as Dream and Reality, wouldn’t he also be capable of sexual arousal? HAL’s sexual identity is destined to remain an open question. As the Turing test implies, we will never really know if his putative straightness is the real thing or merely a convincing facsimile thereof.Less

Marvelous Machines

Gary Westfahl

in Arthur C. Clarke

This chapter explains that although Clarke valued new technology, his stories regularly cast inventors and inventions in a negative light. Evidenced by the club stories in Tales from the White Hart ... More

This chapter explains that although Clarke valued new technology, his stories regularly cast inventors and inventions in a negative light. Evidenced by the club stories in Tales from the White Hart (1957), the motives of his science fiction inventors are usually questionable; their machines frequently malfunction, or have undesirable side effects; and even when functioning properly, inventions can be misused. After long periods of development, machines may be perfected but can become useless or succumb to the ravages of time. These concerns figure in Clarke’s only novel focused on a new machine, The Fountains of Paradise (1979), wherein an engineer’s ego drives him to construct a space elevator; mishaps plague its construction; and the device is eventually abandoned when a climate change renders Earth uninhabitable.Less

Galactic Center Two: Nigel Walmsley’s Space Odyssey

George Slusser

in Gregory Benford

This chapter examines Nigel Walmsley's space odyssey in In the Ocean of Night and Across the Sea of Suns, which span the dates from 1999 to 2061. By the end of the first novel, Nigel has discovered a ... More

This chapter examines Nigel Walmsley's space odyssey in In the Ocean of Night and Across the Sea of Suns, which span the dates from 1999 to 2061. By the end of the first novel, Nigel has discovered a cosmic struggle between machine intelligence and organic life that will soon engulf Earth. Through several contacts with alien artifacts and entities that had come to Earth in both prehistoric and recent times, he predicts the coming of the machines. In Across the Sea of Suns, Nigel does battle with the machines with the help of organic life forms he finds on the moon of a planet in distant Epsilon Eridani. In the process, he reaffirms what he had earlier discovered on Earth: that, in the evolutionary sense, the boundary between machine and organism is not clear cut. The stamp of Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey is clearly on both In the Ocean of Night and Across the Sea of Suns. The chapter analyzes the two novels in order to understand how Gregory Benford launched his space epic.Less

‘A Push-Button Type of Thinking’: Automation, Cybernetics, and AI in Midcentury British Literature

Graham Matthews

in AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking about Intelligent Machines

Midcentury experiments in AI soon resulted in machines that could devise logical proofs, and solve calculus and visual analogy problems; for the first time in human history, AI moved from the realm ... More

Midcentury experiments in AI soon resulted in machines that could devise logical proofs, and solve calculus and visual analogy problems; for the first time in human history, AI moved from the realm of myth to become a real possibility. These technological developments catalysed the publication of numerous AI narratives that explored its impact on contemporary issues such as the labour market, centralization, heuristics, and global communication networks. This chapter contends that midcentury AI narratives must be situated in relation to concomitant technological developments in automation and cybernetics that stimulated widespread concern among government institutions, businesses, and the public. It analyses the varied representation of AI in midcentury novels such as Michael Frayn’s The Tin Men (1965), Len Deighton’s Billion-Dollar Brain (1966), and Arthur C. Clarke’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). These novels problematize AI narrative tropes by resisting anthropomorphic tendencies and implausible utopian and dystopian scenarios; instead, they address the societal ramifications—both positive and negative—for humans faced with technological breakthroughs in AI.Less