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The Role of Family-Supportive Policies in the Decision to Have Children

Barbara Bennett Woodhouse

in The Ecology of Childhood: How Our Changing World Threatens Children's Rights

Chapter six explores the relationship between declining birth rates and family supportive policies. Research on the social construction of parenthood shows that Italians continue to desire children ... More

Chapter six explores the relationship between declining birth rates and family supportive policies. Research on the social construction of parenthood shows that Italians continue to desire children and see parenthood as an important and fulfilling role. Disincentives to childbearing include economic insecurity, escalating costs of childrearing, and insufficient funding of family supportive policies. Rather than avoiding parental responsibility, fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing and grandparents and extended family provide significant caregiving support. The author’s field observations in the village of Scanno confirm the positive involvement of fathers, extended family, and the community in childrearing. The principle of duty on the part of government to protect and support families is embedded in the Italian Constitution, so there is broad support for policies such as universal healthcare, paid parenting leave, subsidized day care and early childhood education, and cash subsidies for families raising children. In the United States, traditions favouring individualism and assigning responsibility for childrearing to the private family have blocked the development of universal, family-supportive policies. Despite its wealth, the U.S. lags far behind peer nations in providing public support during early childhood, exacerbating inequalities between rich and poor children.Less

Grandparental childcare: a reconceptualisation of family policy regimes

Debora Price, Eloi Ribe, Giorgio Di Gessa, and Karen Glaser

in Grandparenting Practices around the World

In this chapter we argue that to understand the ways that policy, structure and culture all shape how grandmothers help to care for children, we need to re-think our approach to these issues. We need ... More

In this chapter we argue that to understand the ways that policy, structure and culture all shape how grandmothers help to care for children, we need to re-think our approach to these issues. We need in particular to think about policies in terms of how they impact on mothers and grandmothers simultaneously, providing different and complex incentives and opportunities in each generation. This leads us to conceptualise childcare as something that is organised in the wider family, and to think of family care versus formal care when considering the wider impacts on individuals and society, rather than focussing on maternal versus non-maternal childcare. It also necessitates thinking about how cultures of gender, family and paid work might be influencing family-level discussions and negotiations. We show that conceptualising childcare as a family collaboration framed by policy and culture helps to explain substantial variations in grandmaternal childcare across Europe..Less

The composition of grandparent childcare: gendered patterns in cross-national perspective

Lyn Craig, Myra Hamilton, and Judith E. Brown

in Grandparenting Practices around the World

Grandparents are important providers of childcare while their adult children participate in work and other activities. The literature suggests that grandmothers are more likely than grandfathers to ... More

Grandparents are important providers of childcare while their adult children participate in work and other activities. The literature suggests that grandmothers are more likely than grandfathers to provide care for their grandchildren, and that the prevalence and intensity of grandparent childcare provision varies by country. But research is lacking on the composition of grandparent childcare time, and whether this varies across countries. What patterns do we see in the gendered distribution of childcare tasks among grandparents? To what extent does this vary across countries with different employment patterns, family policy regimes and norms of familial obligation? Using Time Use Surveys of Australia, Korea, Italy and France this chapter will explore how grandparents are spending their time with grandchildren. It reveals cross-national similarities and differences in the gendered distribution and relative composition of care and discusses the implications for grandmothers and grandfathers in the four different welfare regimes.Less

Towards a more inclusive labour market: lessons from Denmark

David Etherington

in Austerity, Welfare and Work: Exploring Politics, Geographies and Inequalities

The chapter argues that Denmark offers important lessons for developing a critique of austerity and neoliberalism in the UK. The Danish model of coordinated collective bargaining, social ... More

The chapter argues that Denmark offers important lessons for developing a critique of austerity and neoliberalism in the UK. The Danish model of coordinated collective bargaining, social redistribution and key role for trade unions in welfare policy are important features of an inclusive labour market. Investment in childcare is a crucial element in the way welfare supports access to employment. Denmark has forged progressive active labour market policies such as job rotation where the trade unions play a key role in assisting unemployed into employment which offers training and in work support.Less

Working and parenting in the middle years

Jane Gray, Ruth Geraghty, and David Ralph

in Family rhythms: The changing textures of family life in Ireland

This chapter discusses changes in the ‘middle years’ when people expend most energy caring for those who are younger or older, while also working and contributing taxes that enable the state to ... More

This chapter discusses changes in the ‘middle years’ when people expend most energy caring for those who are younger or older, while also working and contributing taxes that enable the state to subsidize, to a greater or lesser extent, the work of caring, placing the Irish experience in comparative context. Narratives from the Life Histories and Social Change collection are combined with contemporary parent interviews from the Growing Up in Ireland study to trace the changing character of adult partner relationships from undemonstrative affection, to an emphasis on companionship, followed by a shared commitment to active parenting as women increasingly remain in paid employment following the birth of children. Decisions about marriage, work and childcare across the generations are explored with reference to complex gendered moral rationalities. There is a discussion of the changing ways in which couples and parents are embedded in wider kinship networks and community life. The chapter also examines how the continuing tension between the private spaces of families and the public spaces of community and social life creates gaps in which some of the darker aspects of family life are concealed, with a particular focus on intimate partner violence.Less

Experts and childcare ‘bibles’: mothers and advice literature

Angela Davis

in Modern Motherhood: Women and Family in England, 1945-2000

The chapter examines how ideas of the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ mother were conveyed to women through the writings of childcare experts. It considers the work of principal authorities on child development who ... More

The chapter examines how ideas of the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ mother were conveyed to women through the writings of childcare experts. It considers the work of principal authorities on child development who were popular from the 1940s to 1990s including Frederick Truby King, John Bowlby, Donald Winnicott, Benjamin Spock, Penelope Leach and Gina Ford. Literature on childcare abounded throughout the second half of the twentieth century and ideas of how mothers should behave were hotly contested. Definitions of what made a ‘good’ mother were constantly in flux, though, so women had to adjust to these changing requirements. Through an analysis of the oral history interviews, this chapter explores the relationship between mothers and the experts. It shows how mothers could struggle to reconcile the demands that these experts were making upon them.Less

Working and caring: women's labour inside and outside the home

Angela Davis

in Modern Motherhood: Women and Family in England, 1945-2000

Women in post-war England lived through a reconceptualisation of women’s work. Attitudes towards working mothers were often contradictory though. The chapter therefore uncovers the deep ambivalence ... More

Women in post-war England lived through a reconceptualisation of women’s work. Attitudes towards working mothers were often contradictory though. The chapter therefore uncovers the deep ambivalence which has characterised women’s attitudes towards their participation in the labour force throughout the second half of the century. It investigates how the interviewees combined paid labour and motherhood in the course of their lives and how society perceived them. It also addresses how important class and levels of education were in determining women’s attitudes towards, and experiences of, work. Both paid work and motherhood were conceived of as ways in which autonomy could be gained for women in the post-war world. Furthermore, influenced by the discourses of contemporary feminism which were influential from the 1970s, women came to speak of their desire to gain independence through work, whether this was inside or outside the home.Less

Childcare markets: an introduction

Eva Lloyd

in Childcare markets: Can they deliver an equitable service?

The state's role in the provision of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services is of particular interest, since such services are closely linked to other social, educational, demographic and ... More

The state's role in the provision of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services is of particular interest, since such services are closely linked to other social, educational, demographic and economic policy developments. Modern welfare states traditionally have varied in the amount of public support provided for early childhood education and care systems and in their response to economic challenges, such as the transition to post-industrialist economies and the rise of female labour market participation. Robust education systems, labour market policies which acknowledge the key contributions of women, family stability and ideas of inclusive citizenship all to an extent hinge on the provision of comprehensive and high quality early childhood education and care. This role requires states to strike a balance between serving the interests of parents and the wider family, of children and of the state itself. But negotiating the intersections between these policy interests is often conflictual. One particular option for addressing these policy conundrums is the promotion of a market-based approach to the provision of early childhood education and care. This chapter introduces historical and contemporary perspectives on childcare markets and provides an overview of the book's structure and chapter contents.Less

Future directions for a mature UK childcare market

Philip Blackburn

in Childcare markets: Can they deliver an equitable service?

Equitable access to childcare in the UK is largely choreographed by a dominant pay-as-you-go private market, which is now categorised as mature in macroeconomic terms. This chapter concentrates on ... More

Equitable access to childcare in the UK is largely choreographed by a dominant pay-as-you-go private market, which is now categorised as mature in macroeconomic terms. This chapter concentrates on pertinent issues for childcare providers in sustaining their businesses within a changing economic and socioeconomic demand climate post-maturity. Such concerns are unlikely to centre on equity issues, the topic of this volume, but the sustenance of the private childcare market in the future will crucially highlight the incidence of equity for consumers. This chapter presents a macroeconomic perspective of the key levers which are likely to shape demand and supply for paid childcare in a market that has matured. Its focus centres on prospects in the UK for: childcare demand using data from population trends, demographics and employment dynamics; funding of childcare by private individuals, employers and the government; and the development and structure of supply which has reached maturity. The aim of the chapter is to identify the likely direction of macroeconomic trends for UK childcare markets in the future, especially in a weak economic environment.Less

Local providers and loyal parents: competition and consumer choice in the Dutch childcare market

Janneke Plantenga

in Childcare markets: Can they deliver an equitable service?

The Dutch childcare sector was completely reorganised by the introduction of the 2005 Childcare Act. This Act was perceived as a thoroughly modern piece of legislation, because financial support is ... More

The Dutch childcare sector was completely reorganised by the introduction of the 2005 Childcare Act. This Act was perceived as a thoroughly modern piece of legislation, because financial support is redirected from the local authorities to the parents with the aim to increase parental choice. The explicit objective of this childcare reform was to stimulate the operation of market forces, so that childcare providers would respond to parental wishes in an efficient way. Important questions now arise as to the implications of the introduction of market forces in the childcare sector. What are the effects for providers and consumers of the transition from supply to demand financing? Are there signals of increasing internal and external efficiency within the childcare market? Is there indeed more competition, more choice and more quality? These questions are answered in this chapter with reference to the concepts of exit, voice and loyalty as introduced by Hirschman (1970). The chapter concludes that local providers and loyal parents do not by definition generate efficient markets. The very nature of this provision may lead to additional market regulation, aiming at steering and perhaps limiting the choices of providers and parents.Less

Childcare markets and government intervention

Gillian Paull

in Childcare markets: Can they deliver an equitable service?

At the start of this chapter the author posits that it is simply not feasible to summarise into a single comparative framework the diverse ways in which the unique characteristics of childcare have ... More

At the start of this chapter the author posits that it is simply not feasible to summarise into a single comparative framework the diverse ways in which the unique characteristics of childcare have been addressed in governmental policies and strategies. Instead, this chapter draws together the economic elements to assess the role of the market in childcare provision and the case for government intervention. After describing the advantages of a private market, it then summarises the evidence presented in Childcare Markets on the problems in the operation of this market, the social objectives that have driven government intervention and the policy solutions that have been used around the world. It concludes that the evidence suggests any policies mitigating market failures and promoting social objectives need to be multidimensional and critically need to command sufficient support from the wider population to pay their cost. The chapter concludes that there is considerable scope for countries to learn from the experiences of others on the best mechanisms for childcare provision. However, given the variation in social objectives for childcare and in cultural conditions, a considerable degree of international diversity in the role of the market and government in childcare provision will likely remain.Less

A More Gender-Equal Scotland? Childcare Policy in Scotland after the Independence Referendum

Craig McAngus and Kirstein Rummery

in A Wealthier, Fairer Scotland: The Political Economy of Constitutional Change

The independence referendum campaign provided opportunity to focus on and debate a number of policy areas that may have been strongly affected by Scottish independence. One of these policy areas was ... More

The independence referendum campaign provided opportunity to focus on and debate a number of policy areas that may have been strongly affected by Scottish independence. One of these policy areas was childcare, with the Scottish Government’s white paper stating the importance childcare provision for the future economic growth of an independent Scotland. Despite the resulting No vote in the referendum, childcare remains a salient policy issue in Scotland. This chapter looks at the role childcare plays in promoting gender equality. Firstly, it looks at what sort of childcare systems promote gender equality and their link to family policy, drawing upon examples from places like Sweden, Iceland and Quebec. Secondly, it looks at the options that the Scottish Government has in the context of further devolution.Less

Grandparenting in the context of care for grandchildren by foreign domestic workers

Shirley Hsiao-li Sun

in Contemporary grandparenting: Changing family relationships in global contexts

Interview data collected on the topic of ‘the best caregiver for children up to three years of age’ in Singapore lends substantial support to the intergenerational solidarity perspective. At the same ... More

Interview data collected on the topic of ‘the best caregiver for children up to three years of age’ in Singapore lends substantial support to the intergenerational solidarity perspective. At the same time, there are signs of intergenerational ambivalence. The grandparental generation in Singapore is re-negotiating the norm of obligation to care for their grandchildren by contracting out part of the grandchildcare to foreign domestic workers. The data presented in this chapter suggests the need to consider to what extent intergenerational solidarity, ambivalence, and conflict characterize the relationship between older parents and their adult children in caring for (grand)children, and whether this is primarily a function of the socio-economic class positions of the families.Less

‘The ties that bind’: ill health and caring and their impact on the low-pay, no-pay cycle

Tracy Shildrick, Robert MacDonald, Colin Webster, and Kayleigh Garthwaite

in Poverty and insecurity: Life in low-pay, no-pay Britain

This chapter shifts attention from ‘the demand side’ of employment – or at least interviewees’ experiences of the forms of work on offer – to ‘supply-side’ factors that sometimes inhibited engagement ... More

This chapter shifts attention from ‘the demand side’ of employment – or at least interviewees’ experiences of the forms of work on offer – to ‘supply-side’ factors that sometimes inhibited engagement with employment, and which helped shape the low-pay, no-pay cycle. Ill-health and caring responsibilities are the two empirical foci here. The chapter unravels the connections between unemployment, poor work and ill-health and speculates that long-term churning between poor work and unemployment may itself add further detriments to health. The chapter shows how jobs often made demands of unsocial hours under unpredictable conditions. This made fulfilling caring responsibilities and accessing affordable and manageable childcare difficult. The chapter concludes, however, by arguing that in the long-term, lived experience of the low-pay, no-pay cycle it is not so easy to separate ‘demand’ from ‘supply-side’ factors. The pressures, constraints and demands of poor work did much to shape what, superficially, appear to be problems that reside in the situations of those looking for work (e.g. ill-health or difficulties with childcare).Less

The path to post-recession prosperity

Tamara Draut

in The squeezed middle: The pressure on ordinary workers in America and Britain

This chapter argues that the political response to the current recession must ensure that the return to growth results in broad-based prosperity that benefits all workers. The single-minded focus on ... More

This chapter argues that the political response to the current recession must ensure that the return to growth results in broad-based prosperity that benefits all workers. The single-minded focus on deficit reduction in Britain and America alike fails to address the deeper crisis in living standards that goes back to well before the current downturn began. A plan for broad-based growth must include action to generate more revenue from taxation and to increase government spending on social and physical infrastructure. Investing more in education and childcare would both help employment and reduce inequality - stimulating growth in the long-run.Less

Gender equality: Parental Leave design and evaluating its effects on fathers’ participation

Ann-Zofie Duvander, Guðný Björk Eydal, Berit Brandth, Ingólfur V. Gíslason, Johanna Lammi-Taskula, and Tine Rostgaard

Peter Moss, Ann-Zofie Duvander, and Alison Koslowski (eds)

in Parental Leave and Beyond: Recent International Developments, Current Issues and Future Directions

This chapter is about the design of Parental Leave policy and its relationship to leave-taking by fathers and gender equality more generally. The Nordic countries have historically emphasised gender ... More

This chapter is about the design of Parental Leave policy and its relationship to leave-taking by fathers and gender equality more generally. The Nordic countries have historically emphasised gender equality in policymaking and have been in the forefront for introducing policies that encourage mothers and fathers to share responsibility for the care of children. Parental Leave is considered to be one such policy as it secures fathers’ rights to participate in the care of the child, with potentially long-term effects on their involvement with children and the division of unpaid and paid work. However, there are different designs for Parental Leave, and the chapter identifies the major dimensions in the design of Nordic Parental Leave policies and evaluates them in relation to their effect on gender equality. It also considers how to conceptualise and measure gender equality in association with Parental Leave.Less