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Through a Looking Glass: Olaudah Equiano and African Experiences of the British Atlantic Slave Trade

David Richardson

in Black Experience and the Empire

This chapter focuses on the movement of Africans to America on British slave ships. The exact number of British ships that participated in the slave trade will probably never be known, but in the 245 ... More

This chapter focuses on the movement of Africans to America on British slave ships. The exact number of British ships that participated in the slave trade will probably never be known, but in the 245 years separating the first known English slaving voyage to Africa in 1562 and the abolition of the British slave trade in 1807, merchants in Britain despatched about 10,000 voyages to Africa for slaves, with merchants in other parts of the British empire perhaps fitting out a further 1,150 voyages. Altogether, the ships involved in these British and British empire voyages were responsible for carrying possibly 3.4 million or more enslaved Africans to the Americas, or one in three or four of all enslaved Africans entering the Atlantic slave trade during its history.Less

The Troubled Years: The Interwar Period

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter examines British shipping in the interwar period, with the intent of understanding why tonnage levels had dropped to 5.1 million tons below the pre-war growth rate by 1939. It examines ... More

This chapter examines British shipping in the interwar period, with the intent of understanding why tonnage levels had dropped to 5.1 million tons below the pre-war growth rate by 1939. It examines trend projections; trade, freights, and tonnage data; fuel trades; and the advent of motor ship technology to make an economic analysis, before comparing and contrasting Britain with contemporary Norwegian and German shipping to provide an international context. The conclusion states that the interwar period was difficult for British shipowners due to factors outside of their control, such as the decline of the British coal trade, the protection of British labour, and an over-tonnaged world market.Less

High Water: The Pre-1914 Period

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter provides a history of the pre-1914 period in British shipping. It determines and summarises the four factors that led to British domination of the ocean as the extent of their colonial ... More

This chapter provides a history of the pre-1914 period in British shipping. It determines and summarises the four factors that led to British domination of the ocean as the extent of their colonial activity; the speed of industrialisation; population growth; and the advantages of establishing trade routes, posts, and ports earlier than other nations. It then explores the extent of the British dominance in relation to the rest of the world; world trade in relation to British trade; national shipping policies; navigation laws; and the response of the rest of the world to the Navigation Acts. It concludes that Britain retained dominance in this period but saw an increase in world competition, particularly from Germany and Japan, and that British trade grew at a slower pace than world trade, which meant shipowners needed to keep their vessels larger and faster than those of upcoming rivals.Less

War and Reconstruction

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter presents the effects of the First World War on the future of the British shipping industry. It examines shipping tonnage statistics to demonstrates Britain’s loss of three million tons ... More

This chapter presents the effects of the First World War on the future of the British shipping industry. It examines shipping tonnage statistics to demonstrates Britain’s loss of three million tons and in contrast, the worldwide tonnage increase of seven million tons. It is presented in two halves: the first provides overviews of the tonnage profit between 1914 and 1920 in America, Japan, France, and Italy, and the tonnage of neutral countries and British enemies; detailed shipping losses and the financial effects on British shipping; plus tramp and liner statistics, tax rates, freight rates, the lack of equalisation schemes, and the loss of entrepôt trade. The second half examines the British postwar reconstruction effort, and calculates the value of the four major sources of tonnage available: British ships built during the war; ceded German ships; purchases from foreign owners; and new builds. It concludes that Britain sought to return to a prewar perceived sense of normalcy in shipping, despite irrevocable changes in worldwide shipping such as the rise of the American fleet.Less

The Chesapeake: The Forces Gather

Colin Pengelly

in Sir Samuel Hood and the Battle of the Chesapeake

This chapter examines the role of Samuel Hood in the Battle of the Chesapeake. It discusses the poor condition of the British ships, British forces search for the French and their decision to station ... More

This chapter examines the role of Samuel Hood in the Battle of the Chesapeake. It discusses the poor condition of the British ships, British forces search for the French and their decision to station in New York. It also highlights the misinformation received by the British Royal Navy about the plans of the French. The British sighting of French ships was recorded on September 5, 1781.Less

“Provided they arrive in health”

Audra A. Diptee

in From Africa to Jamaica: The Making of an Atlantic Slave Society, 17751807

In this chapter, it is suggested that, at least for the period under study, Jamaican purchasers did not make the buying of adult males their top priority when purchasing captives. Nor was their ... More

In this chapter, it is suggested that, at least for the period under study, Jamaican purchasers did not make the buying of adult males their top priority when purchasing captives. Nor was their greatest demand necessarily for women and/or children. Ultimately, it was the health and condition of captives that had the largest influence on trading prices and patterns. British ship captains understood that Jamaican planters had the greatest demand for healthy African captives, and for this reason the age and sex of the enslaved they purchased was a secondary concern. There were various factors had the potential to undermine the profitability of a slaving voyage. Furthermore, few if any pragmatic-minded British traders would deliberately delay their ships on the African coast for the express purpose of purchasing the “assortment” of captives requested by buyers on the other side of the Atlantic.Less

Economics of Shipping Enterprises

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter explores the economics of British shipping enterprises in relation to the necessary factors for economic expansion. It examines the economics of different ship types - cargo liners, ... More

This chapter explores the economics of British shipping enterprises in relation to the necessary factors for economic expansion. It examines the economics of different ship types - cargo liners, passenger liners, tramps, and tankers - their cost structures; profitability; vessel technology; and ability to attract and retain both capital and labour. It concludes with predictions for post-1960 shipping economics, and suggests that smaller companies would be more likely to suffer from stunted fleet growth than larger, established companies.Less

The Structure of the British Industry

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter provides a thorough account of the structure of the British shipping industry as it stood in 1960. It examines fleet ownership and provides a detailed summary of the eight liner ... More

This chapter provides a thorough account of the structure of the British shipping industry as it stood in 1960. It examines fleet ownership and provides a detailed summary of the eight liner companies that owned eighty percent of British liner tonnage at the time, and both the causes and consequences of this structure. The companies detailed, in order of size, are as follows: Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O); Furness Withy; Blue Funnel Group (containing the Blue Funnel and Elder Dempster lines); Cunard; British and Commonwealth; Ellerman; Vestey; and Inverforth. It concludes with the author’s prediction that in order to improve the industry, large companies must accept the turbulent industry environment and learn to navigate it flexibly to attain future growth.Less

The Question Answered

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This final chapter returns to the original question laid out at the start of the volume: why the tonnage of British ships declined by an enormous amount between 1900 and 1960. It brings together the ... More

This final chapter returns to the original question laid out at the start of the volume: why the tonnage of British ships declined by an enormous amount between 1900 and 1960. It brings together the findings of the volume to provide a definitive conclusion. It reiterates the changes in economic factors; interferences with the competitive process; trade factors; war; taxation; policy-making; growth rates; and growth constraints, concluding that overall, the decline of the industry was primarily due to internal decision-making rather than external factors. Upon publication, this conclusion drew ire and scrutiny, but Sturmey’s arguments have generally stood the test of time.Less

The wider context of the seaport riots

in Black 1919: Riots, Racism and Resistance in Imperial Britain

This chapter explores the inter-locking causes of the seaport riots. These included the high level of post-war unemployment in the merchant navy and the tension caused in overcrowded ports by the ... More

This chapter explores the inter-locking causes of the seaport riots. These included the high level of post-war unemployment in the merchant navy and the tension caused in overcrowded ports by the arrival of increased numbers of black people to work and settle. The social dislocation produced by the end of the war and the problems created by four and half years of conflict are also evaluated. In 1919, rioting in the ports constituted a wider part of dissent and violence among sections of the working class left disenchanted by their peacetime prospects. The National Seamen's and Firemen's Union (NSFU) was the oldest and largest seamen's union and traditionally adopted an ambivalent stance to the presence of sailors from overseas on British ships. The compliant behaviour of the NSFU left many merchant sailors feeling powerless. Furthermore, colonial workers in France were involved in riots.Less

The Problem Defined

S.G. Sturmey

in British Shipping and World Competition

This chapter introduces the journal and its approach to the question of why the British shipping industry declined at tremendous rate between 1900 and 1960. It outlines the possible answers - the ... More

This chapter introduces the journal and its approach to the question of why the British shipping industry declined at tremendous rate between 1900 and 1960. It outlines the possible answers - the change in economy; international competition; factors outside of shipping; and internal decision-making - and how they will be addressed in subsequent chapters. It provides an overview of both British and international growth performances over the period, and defines the statistical parameters of the study - tonnage is measured in gross tonnage; British shipping is limited to ocean shipping and excludes coastal shipping.Less

Competition or Co-operation in the Global Shipping Industry: The Origins and Impact of the Conference System for British Shipowners before 1914

Robert G. Greenhill

in Global Markets: The Internationalization of the Sea Transport Industries since 1850

This chapter assesses the role of conference system from its formation through to 1914. During the nineteenth century a sharp and persistent increase in competition between shipowners over trade and ... More

This chapter assesses the role of conference system from its formation through to 1914. During the nineteenth century a sharp and persistent increase in competition between shipowners over trade and trade routes led to the need for conferences, with the intention of curbing rivalry and retaining customers. Robert G. Greenhill seeks to determine how successful these conferences were at meeting their goals, and finds that though results varied from location to location, overall the consensus amongst shipowners was that it was better for business to be involved in the conference system, rather than not be.Less

Epilogue

in Black Salt: Seafarers of African Descent on British Ships

It has been demonstrated in this book that seafarers of the African Diaspora have served British interests from at least the reign of the Tudors up to the present day. The black seafarers in Britain ... More

It has been demonstrated in this book that seafarers of the African Diaspora have served British interests from at least the reign of the Tudors up to the present day. The black seafarers in Britain have served and have frequently performed their duties with bravery and stoicism as a ubiquitous and often apparently invisible presence on British ships. They have felt many difficulties in the course of their long history of British service. Together with the slave trade, the employment of seafarers of African descent undoubtedly brought about a far wider distribution of people of the African Diaspora. It can appear that black seamen on British ships were more than a mere a peripheral force within the British Royal and mercantile navies.Less

Reg Arnell, Board Member for Finance, British Shipbuilders Plc, 1977-1991

Anthony Slaven and Hugh Murphy (eds)

in Crossing the Bar: An Oral History of the British Shipbuilding, Ship Repairing and Marine Engine-Building Industries in the Age of Decline, 1956-1990

Interview with Reg Arnell, Board Member for Finance, British Shipbuilders Plc, 1977-1991. Details experience working with British Shipbuilders Plc.

Furness' Shipping Services: Growth by Organic Means in the 1880s

Gordon Boyce

in The Growth and Dissolution of a Large-Scale Business Enterprise: The Furness Interest, 1892-1919

This chapter examines the growth of the Furness Group’s shipping services during the 1880s. It begins with an overview of British foreign trade between 1870 and 1901, citing population growth and ... More

This chapter examines the growth of the Furness Group’s shipping services during the 1880s. It begins with an overview of British foreign trade between 1870 and 1901, citing population growth and rising incomes as reasons for the huge rise in imports. It explores the advantages of British shipping over international competitors, which included the trebling of the merchant fleet, activity in the well-established Baltic trade, and the capacity for steamship construction. It then considers Christopher Furness’ shipping activity from the 1891 establishment of the Furness Group and onwards. By studying the changing composition of Furness’ accessible resources and the economic conditions facing the shipping industry, it determines the specific routes chosen out of the multiple options developing in the expanding global trade. It concludes in the 1890s and states that unlike other shipowning companies in the era, which had begun consolidating ownership but not at a tremendous rate, Furness commanded eighty-four percent of the Furness Group which gave him a debt-free platform and the capacity to support further growth in shipping operations.Less

Desertion, Dereliction and Destitution: The Travails of Stranded West African Seamen in the United Kingdom, ca. 1921-1934

Ayodeji Olukoju

in Navigating African Maritime History

This essay explores the lives of West African seamen stranded in Britain during the interwar years, the decline of the British shipping industry in the postwar colony, and the reluctance of colonial ... More

This essay explores the lives of West African seamen stranded in Britain during the interwar years, the decline of the British shipping industry in the postwar colony, and the reluctance of colonial and imperial governments to provide humanitarian aid to stranded man. It explores the factors that led to the prominence of African destitution in Britain, including employer preference for white British labour in maritime roles. It also explores the efforts of humanitarian pressure groups, the West African elite who responded to the crisis, plus instances of individual acts of aid. It analyses Nigerian colonial correspondence and West African and British newspapers to determine that the way in which colonial governments responded to a crisis had less to do with lack of resources and more to do with the personal proclivities of colonial administrators.Less

Reception at Constantinople

William St. Clair

in Lord Elgin and the Marbles

In November 1798 when the notion of establishing an embassy was initially discussed, the fundamental cause was clear as General Koehler was in charge of helping the Turks by land while Sir Sidney ... More

In November 1798 when the notion of establishing an embassy was initially discussed, the fundamental cause was clear as General Koehler was in charge of helping the Turks by land while Sir Sidney Smith was to be responsible for those at sea. Also, Elgin was to have established a formal treaty of alliance. In January 1799, however, the joint British Ministers — which included Spencer Smith and his brother — were already able to achieve that goal. As such, Elgin's purpose shifted to ratifyiing the treaty and to convincing the Turkish government to allow British trade and shipping in the Black Sea. Again, Elgin was outran by Spencer Smith. Sir Sidney Smith thus wrote to Lord Grenville regarding Spencer Smith's position. This chapter explores how the news of Elgin's new appointment at the Porte was received.Less