Alan C. L. Yu
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199279388
- eISBN:
- 9780191707346
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279388.003.0005
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Phonetics / Phonology
This chapter is dedicated to elucidating the range of known infix-creating ambiguities in language. As such, it offers a diachronic typology of infixation. It shows that edge-oriented infixes ...
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This chapter is dedicated to elucidating the range of known infix-creating ambiguities in language. As such, it offers a diachronic typology of infixation. It shows that edge-oriented infixes ultimately originate from adpositional affixes (i.e., prefixes or suffixes). Their peripheral origins give rise to their synchronic edge-oriented profile. Ultimately, it is the preponderance of such infixes with adpositional origin that gives rise to the observed Edge-Bias Effect.Less
This chapter is dedicated to elucidating the range of known infix-creating ambiguities in language. As such, it offers a diachronic typology of infixation. It shows that edge-oriented infixes ultimately originate from adpositional affixes (i.e., prefixes or suffixes). Their peripheral origins give rise to their synchronic edge-oriented profile. Ultimately, it is the preponderance of such infixes with adpositional origin that gives rise to the observed Edge-Bias Effect.
Steven Huebner
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195189544
- eISBN:
- 9780199868476
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189544.003.0025
- Subject:
- Music, History, Western
This chapter focuses on Alfred Bruneau and Émile Zola. Bruneau was known as a musical progressive in his work as a music critic for Gil-Bias and Le Figaro and in his compositions. His orchestral ...
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This chapter focuses on Alfred Bruneau and Émile Zola. Bruneau was known as a musical progressive in his work as a music critic for Gil-Bias and Le Figaro and in his compositions. His orchestral pieces and songs were heard at the Colonne and Lamoureux concert series as well as at the Société nationale. Émile Zola was a political columnist who lambasted the Catholic-royalist proponents of Moral Order in the early days of the republic; an essayist who defended Impressionist painters at the first hour in 1866; a literary critic who urged writers to ‘observe and experiment’; and a novelist who created a sensation in 1877 through the unprecedented graphic description of (in his own words) ‘the authentic smell of the people’ in L'Assommoir. It is argued that Zola and Bruneau ostensibly attempted to build a healthy French order upon the legacy of Wagner. Ironically, despite widely divergent political and patriotic agendas, they shared some territory in this respect with the d'Indy of Fervaal.Less
This chapter focuses on Alfred Bruneau and Émile Zola. Bruneau was known as a musical progressive in his work as a music critic for Gil-Bias and Le Figaro and in his compositions. His orchestral pieces and songs were heard at the Colonne and Lamoureux concert series as well as at the Société nationale. Émile Zola was a political columnist who lambasted the Catholic-royalist proponents of Moral Order in the early days of the republic; an essayist who defended Impressionist painters at the first hour in 1866; a literary critic who urged writers to ‘observe and experiment’; and a novelist who created a sensation in 1877 through the unprecedented graphic description of (in his own words) ‘the authentic smell of the people’ in L'Assommoir. It is argued that Zola and Bruneau ostensibly attempted to build a healthy French order upon the legacy of Wagner. Ironically, despite widely divergent political and patriotic agendas, they shared some territory in this respect with the d'Indy of Fervaal.
Albert O. Hirschman
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691159904
- eISBN:
- 9781400848409
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691159904.003.0001
- Subject:
- Sociology, Social Theory
This chapter contains the introduction to Hirschman's collection of essays on development at the close of the 1960s, A Bias for Hope: Essays on Development in Latin America. Here, Hirschman points to ...
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This chapter contains the introduction to Hirschman's collection of essays on development at the close of the 1960s, A Bias for Hope: Essays on Development in Latin America. Here, Hirschman points to the importance of the interplay between economic and political forces: not just the economic theories of politics, nor simply the political dimensions of economic phenomena, but the interactions between two fields that can open up spaces for alternatives. Hence, this chapter urges more flexibility and realism and less reliance on general laws to explain social phenomena. Freedom and creativity—in short, “a passion for the possible”—were Hirschman's watchwords in this piece.Less
This chapter contains the introduction to Hirschman's collection of essays on development at the close of the 1960s, A Bias for Hope: Essays on Development in Latin America. Here, Hirschman points to the importance of the interplay between economic and political forces: not just the economic theories of politics, nor simply the political dimensions of economic phenomena, but the interactions between two fields that can open up spaces for alternatives. Hence, this chapter urges more flexibility and realism and less reliance on general laws to explain social phenomena. Freedom and creativity—in short, “a passion for the possible”—were Hirschman's watchwords in this piece.
Martha Whitesmith
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- May 2021
- ISBN:
- 9781474466349
- eISBN:
- 9781474491112
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474466349.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, Security Studies
Chapter five provides details of the meta-analyses into confirmation bias. It will show that the analytical conditions of diagnostic weighting of initial information, consistency of information, ...
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Chapter five provides details of the meta-analyses into confirmation bias. It will show that the analytical conditions of diagnostic weighting of initial information, consistency of information, hypothesis testing instructions and type of information likely have an impact on confirmation bias. It will also show that the results undermine key assumptions in predominant predictions models the inability to identify diagnostic value of information theory concerning confirmation bias (Koslowski and Maqueda 1993, and Kuhn et al. 1988). The chapter proposes alternative models for predicting serial position effects and confirmation bias. These models argue that whilst the risk of occurrence of serial position effects and confirmation bias are impacted by different analytical conditions, they share an underlying cognitive process: a force towards forming a focal hypothesis early on in belief acquisition.Less
Chapter five provides details of the meta-analyses into confirmation bias. It will show that the analytical conditions of diagnostic weighting of initial information, consistency of information, hypothesis testing instructions and type of information likely have an impact on confirmation bias. It will also show that the results undermine key assumptions in predominant predictions models the inability to identify diagnostic value of information theory concerning confirmation bias (Koslowski and Maqueda 1993, and Kuhn et al. 1988). The chapter proposes alternative models for predicting serial position effects and confirmation bias. These models argue that whilst the risk of occurrence of serial position effects and confirmation bias are impacted by different analytical conditions, they share an underlying cognitive process: a force towards forming a focal hypothesis early on in belief acquisition.
Katrina Hutchison and Fiona Jenkins (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199325603
- eISBN:
- 9780199369317
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199325603.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
Despite its place among the humanities and social sciences, the career prospects and numbers of women in philosophy much more closely resemble those of women in the sciences and engineering, than in ...
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Despite its place among the humanities and social sciences, the career prospects and numbers of women in philosophy much more closely resemble those of women in the sciences and engineering, than in cognate disciplinary areas. This book collects a series of critical essays by female philosophers, to pursue the question of why philosophy continues to be inhospitable to women and what can be done to change it. By examining the social and institutional conditions of contemporary academic philosophy in the Anglophone world, as well as its methods, culture, and characteristic commitments, the volume provides a case study in interpretation of one academic discipline in which women’s progress seems to have stalled since initial gains made in the 1980’s. Some contributors make use of concepts developed in other contexts to explain women’s under-representation, including the effects of unconscious biases, stereotype threat, and micro-inequities, adapting these to make evident their salience for understanding specific situations in philosophy. Other chapters draw on the resources of feminist philosophy to challenge everyday understandings of time, communication, authority and merit, as these shape effective but often unrecognised forms of discrimination and exclusion. Often it is assumed that women need to change to fit existing institutions. This book instead offers concrete reflections on the way in which philosophy needs to change, in order to accommodate and benefit from the important contribution women’s full participation makes to the discipline.Less
Despite its place among the humanities and social sciences, the career prospects and numbers of women in philosophy much more closely resemble those of women in the sciences and engineering, than in cognate disciplinary areas. This book collects a series of critical essays by female philosophers, to pursue the question of why philosophy continues to be inhospitable to women and what can be done to change it. By examining the social and institutional conditions of contemporary academic philosophy in the Anglophone world, as well as its methods, culture, and characteristic commitments, the volume provides a case study in interpretation of one academic discipline in which women’s progress seems to have stalled since initial gains made in the 1980’s. Some contributors make use of concepts developed in other contexts to explain women’s under-representation, including the effects of unconscious biases, stereotype threat, and micro-inequities, adapting these to make evident their salience for understanding specific situations in philosophy. Other chapters draw on the resources of feminist philosophy to challenge everyday understandings of time, communication, authority and merit, as these shape effective but often unrecognised forms of discrimination and exclusion. Often it is assumed that women need to change to fit existing institutions. This book instead offers concrete reflections on the way in which philosophy needs to change, in order to accommodate and benefit from the important contribution women’s full participation makes to the discipline.
Zhong-Lin Lu and Barbara Dosher
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- May 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780262019453
- eISBN:
- 9780262314930
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262019453.003.0011
- Subject:
- Psychology, Vision
Adaptive procedures are developed to reduce the burden of data collection in psychophysics by creating more efficient experimental test designs and methods of estimating either statistics or ...
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Adaptive procedures are developed to reduce the burden of data collection in psychophysics by creating more efficient experimental test designs and methods of estimating either statistics or parameters. In some cases, these adaptive procedures may reduce the amount of testing by as much as 80% to 90%. This chapter begins with a description of classical staircase procedures for estimating the threshold and/or slope of the psychometric function, followed by a description of modern Bayesian adaptive methods for optimizing psychophysical tests. We introduce applications of Bayesian adaptive procedures for the estimation of psychophysically measured functions and surfaces. The bias, precision and efficiency of estimates is considered. Each method is accompanied by an illustrative example and sample results and a discussion of the practical requirements of the procedure.Less
Adaptive procedures are developed to reduce the burden of data collection in psychophysics by creating more efficient experimental test designs and methods of estimating either statistics or parameters. In some cases, these adaptive procedures may reduce the amount of testing by as much as 80% to 90%. This chapter begins with a description of classical staircase procedures for estimating the threshold and/or slope of the psychometric function, followed by a description of modern Bayesian adaptive methods for optimizing psychophysical tests. We introduce applications of Bayesian adaptive procedures for the estimation of psychophysically measured functions and surfaces. The bias, precision and efficiency of estimates is considered. Each method is accompanied by an illustrative example and sample results and a discussion of the practical requirements of the procedure.
Assaf Razin
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780262037341
- eISBN:
- 9780262344234
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262037341.003.0008
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Economy
A more generous welfare state (particularly with an aging population) has financing needs that immigrants could fill. With high-skilled immigrants more likely to pay in rather than draw on the ...
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A more generous welfare state (particularly with an aging population) has financing needs that immigrants could fill. With high-skilled immigrants more likely to pay in rather than draw on the welfare state, more generous welfare states are more inclined to try to attract high skilled. Israel ranks third in the world in the number of university graduates per capita, after the United States and the Netherlands. It possesses the highest per capita number of scientists in the world, with 135 for every 10,000 citizens (compared to 85 per 10,000 in the United States). Israelis took full advantage of the immigration skill bias. When examining the index for educated émigrés, i.e., those with a college degree, the average index is 12.41 and Israel's index is more than three times higher, 41.45. Using this index, Israel is higher than Portugal and the gap between Israel and Ireland (49.09) narrows considerably.Less
A more generous welfare state (particularly with an aging population) has financing needs that immigrants could fill. With high-skilled immigrants more likely to pay in rather than draw on the welfare state, more generous welfare states are more inclined to try to attract high skilled. Israel ranks third in the world in the number of university graduates per capita, after the United States and the Netherlands. It possesses the highest per capita number of scientists in the world, with 135 for every 10,000 citizens (compared to 85 per 10,000 in the United States). Israelis took full advantage of the immigration skill bias. When examining the index for educated émigrés, i.e., those with a college degree, the average index is 12.41 and Israel's index is more than three times higher, 41.45. Using this index, Israel is higher than Portugal and the gap between Israel and Ireland (49.09) narrows considerably.
Philip M. Rosoff
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780262027496
- eISBN:
- 9780262320764
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262027496.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Bioethics
This chapter discusses the politically and morally contentious issue of whether strict fairness and justice in a rationing system can be accomplished in a democracy like the United States. Fairness ...
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This chapter discusses the politically and morally contentious issue of whether strict fairness and justice in a rationing system can be accomplished in a democracy like the United States. Fairness dictates that similar cases should be similarly treated, and morally irrelevant facts about people should be exactly that: irrelevant. However, it seems difficult to imagine (for example) that undocumented immigrants would be offered the same benefits under a comprehensive and rationed healthcare system as citizens, due to public opposition. On the other hand, the “better angels of our nature” have occasionally prevailed against apparent dominant opinion, such as in the case of civil rights. However, it is acknowledged that the tyranny of the majority may have to be mollified if that would ensure acceptance of comprehensive healthcare reform.Less
This chapter discusses the politically and morally contentious issue of whether strict fairness and justice in a rationing system can be accomplished in a democracy like the United States. Fairness dictates that similar cases should be similarly treated, and morally irrelevant facts about people should be exactly that: irrelevant. However, it seems difficult to imagine (for example) that undocumented immigrants would be offered the same benefits under a comprehensive and rationed healthcare system as citizens, due to public opposition. On the other hand, the “better angels of our nature” have occasionally prevailed against apparent dominant opinion, such as in the case of civil rights. However, it is acknowledged that the tyranny of the majority may have to be mollified if that would ensure acceptance of comprehensive healthcare reform.
Thaddeus Metz
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199599318
- eISBN:
- 9780191747632
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199599318.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology, Moral Philosophy
This chapter compares and contrasts the personal goods of pleasure and meaning, focusing most on highlighting important differences between them. Specifically, after arguing that there is a largely ...
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This chapter compares and contrasts the personal goods of pleasure and meaning, focusing most on highlighting important differences between them. Specifically, after arguing that there is a largely unrecognized negative or disvaluable dimension of meaning, parallel to the way that pain is the opposite of pleasure, the chapter contrasts pleasure and meaning with respect to six value-theoretic factors, among them: what the logical sources of these values are, how luck can play a role in their realization, which attitudes are appropriate in response to them, and whether they exhibit Derek Parfit’s idea of ‘bias toward the future’ regarding when they are preferred in a life. The chapter concludes by suggesting that a pleasant life is to be identified with a happy one, which means that happiness and meaningfulness are two basic goods that can each contribute to making a life worthwhile.Less
This chapter compares and contrasts the personal goods of pleasure and meaning, focusing most on highlighting important differences between them. Specifically, after arguing that there is a largely unrecognized negative or disvaluable dimension of meaning, parallel to the way that pain is the opposite of pleasure, the chapter contrasts pleasure and meaning with respect to six value-theoretic factors, among them: what the logical sources of these values are, how luck can play a role in their realization, which attitudes are appropriate in response to them, and whether they exhibit Derek Parfit’s idea of ‘bias toward the future’ regarding when they are preferred in a life. The chapter concludes by suggesting that a pleasant life is to be identified with a happy one, which means that happiness and meaningfulness are two basic goods that can each contribute to making a life worthwhile.
Jonathan Maskit
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- September 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780823254491
- eISBN:
- 9780823261185
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823254491.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
Jonathan Maskit challenges the ‘standard view’ that the most important division in contemporary aesthetics is that between cognitivists (those who believe that concepts, usually scientific concepts, ...
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Jonathan Maskit challenges the ‘standard view’ that the most important division in contemporary aesthetics is that between cognitivists (those who believe that concepts, usually scientific concepts, are essential for the aesthetic appreciation of nature) and non-cognitivists (those who do not so believe). Both camps tend to agree that our goal ought to be to figure out the one correct way to appreciate an environment appropriately. Such a characterization of the field suggests an Anglo-American bias. If we confront New World with Old World perspectives an alternative distinction come to the fore, that between universalists, who are analytic in their methods, and cultural historicists, who use hermeneutic methods. Universalists generally hold that culture and history are unimportant when trying to figure out what nature is or how people should appreciate it aesthetically. Cultural historicists, by contrast, believe that one’s culture or the history of the observer or the place are crucial to working out one’s environmental aesthetic. Crucially, from the cultural historicist standpoint, the very idea of there being one correct or appropriate way to appreciate nature aesthetically makes no sense.Less
Jonathan Maskit challenges the ‘standard view’ that the most important division in contemporary aesthetics is that between cognitivists (those who believe that concepts, usually scientific concepts, are essential for the aesthetic appreciation of nature) and non-cognitivists (those who do not so believe). Both camps tend to agree that our goal ought to be to figure out the one correct way to appreciate an environment appropriately. Such a characterization of the field suggests an Anglo-American bias. If we confront New World with Old World perspectives an alternative distinction come to the fore, that between universalists, who are analytic in their methods, and cultural historicists, who use hermeneutic methods. Universalists generally hold that culture and history are unimportant when trying to figure out what nature is or how people should appreciate it aesthetically. Cultural historicists, by contrast, believe that one’s culture or the history of the observer or the place are crucial to working out one’s environmental aesthetic. Crucially, from the cultural historicist standpoint, the very idea of there being one correct or appropriate way to appreciate nature aesthetically makes no sense.
Aric Bendorf and Ian Kerridge
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199682676
- eISBN:
- 9780191763168
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199682676.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
Lysaght and Campbell note the promise of regenerative medicine and call for a broader philosophical and public discourse that extends beyond questions surrounding the moral status of embryos. While ...
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Lysaght and Campbell note the promise of regenerative medicine and call for a broader philosophical and public discourse that extends beyond questions surrounding the moral status of embryos. While this is a laudable aim, it fails to confront the pernicious, controlling and suffocating impact that religion has had on debates surrounding stem cell research, regenerative medicine and science more broadly. While bioethics should privilege tolerance and pluralism, it also has an important role in activism and as a critic of positions and institutions that seek to dominate and control public discourse.Less
Lysaght and Campbell note the promise of regenerative medicine and call for a broader philosophical and public discourse that extends beyond questions surrounding the moral status of embryos. While this is a laudable aim, it fails to confront the pernicious, controlling and suffocating impact that religion has had on debates surrounding stem cell research, regenerative medicine and science more broadly. While bioethics should privilege tolerance and pluralism, it also has an important role in activism and as a critic of positions and institutions that seek to dominate and control public discourse.
Philippe Grandjean
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- September 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199985388
- eISBN:
- 9780199346233
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199985388.003.0009
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
Inertia in science is a major hurdle, as the documentation of neurotoxicity builds only gradually. Scientific tradition demands verification and replication before reaching firm conclusions. Worse, ...
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Inertia in science is a major hurdle, as the documentation of neurotoxicity builds only gradually. Scientific tradition demands verification and replication before reaching firm conclusions. Worse, vested interest have explored this inertia by demanding proof and by raising doubt about scientific documentation. Meanwhile, more than a generation of children have suffered chemical brain drain, while the evidence was debated and no decision reached. These adverse effects could have been prevented. However, in a contentious environment, where conflicting interests abound, scientists tend to hedge their conclusions in soft language in an attempt to justify a balanced position. Often, existing uncertainties are interpreted as a demand for more research, from which the researchers themselves may benefit, and preventive action is then postponed. The picture is muddled by unrecognized or unreported biases and by the influence of vested interests that have manipulated or manufactured doubt and uncertainty.Less
Inertia in science is a major hurdle, as the documentation of neurotoxicity builds only gradually. Scientific tradition demands verification and replication before reaching firm conclusions. Worse, vested interest have explored this inertia by demanding proof and by raising doubt about scientific documentation. Meanwhile, more than a generation of children have suffered chemical brain drain, while the evidence was debated and no decision reached. These adverse effects could have been prevented. However, in a contentious environment, where conflicting interests abound, scientists tend to hedge their conclusions in soft language in an attempt to justify a balanced position. Often, existing uncertainties are interpreted as a demand for more research, from which the researchers themselves may benefit, and preventive action is then postponed. The picture is muddled by unrecognized or unreported biases and by the influence of vested interests that have manipulated or manufactured doubt and uncertainty.
Hazlett Allan
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199674800
- eISBN:
- 9780191761164
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199674800.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
It is argued that false belief is often better for a person than true belief, by appeal to cases of “partiality bias” (bias in favor of a positive conception of one’s friends) and “charitable bias” ...
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It is argued that false belief is often better for a person than true belief, by appeal to cases of “partiality bias” (bias in favor of a positive conception of one’s friends) and “charitable bias” (bias in favor of a positive conception of people in general). Friendship sometimes requires partiality bias, and moral virtue requires charitable bias. This argument assumes that friendship and moral virtue are constituents of wellbeing.Less
It is argued that false belief is often better for a person than true belief, by appeal to cases of “partiality bias” (bias in favor of a positive conception of one’s friends) and “charitable bias” (bias in favor of a positive conception of people in general). Friendship sometimes requires partiality bias, and moral virtue requires charitable bias. This argument assumes that friendship and moral virtue are constituents of wellbeing.
Lisa Bortolotti
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- August 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780198863984
- eISBN:
- 9780191896262
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198863984.003.0006
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
In this chapter, the author argues that optimistically biased beliefs that agents tend to have about themselves and their future have the potential for epistemic innocence. Such beliefs—inflated ...
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In this chapter, the author argues that optimistically biased beliefs that agents tend to have about themselves and their future have the potential for epistemic innocence. Such beliefs—inflated beliefs about the agent’s self-worth and rosy predictions about the agent’s health prospects or romantic relationships—are not sufficiently sensitive to the evidence available to the agent and count both as ill-grounded and impervious to counterevidence. However, optimistic beliefs also play a role in supporting agency. When agents believe that they are skilled and that things are going to go well for them, they are more motivated to continue to pursue their goals in the face of inevitable obstacles and setbacks. Persistence in goal pursuit sometimes translates in successful performance. Moreover, optimistic agents are more motivated to change their behaviour to achieve the goals they believe to be attainable, and thus cope better with crises in their health or relationships.Less
In this chapter, the author argues that optimistically biased beliefs that agents tend to have about themselves and their future have the potential for epistemic innocence. Such beliefs—inflated beliefs about the agent’s self-worth and rosy predictions about the agent’s health prospects or romantic relationships—are not sufficiently sensitive to the evidence available to the agent and count both as ill-grounded and impervious to counterevidence. However, optimistic beliefs also play a role in supporting agency. When agents believe that they are skilled and that things are going to go well for them, they are more motivated to continue to pursue their goals in the face of inevitable obstacles and setbacks. Persistence in goal pursuit sometimes translates in successful performance. Moreover, optimistic agents are more motivated to change their behaviour to achieve the goals they believe to be attainable, and thus cope better with crises in their health or relationships.
David Gleicher
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780973893410
- eISBN:
- 9781786944634
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Liverpool University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5949/liverpool/9780973893410.003.0008
- Subject:
- History, Maritime History
This final chapter concludes the findings of the journal. It states that contrary to the ‘popular story’ there exists no convincing evidence that passengers in the third class surged against ...
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This final chapter concludes the findings of the journal. It states that contrary to the ‘popular story’ there exists no convincing evidence that passengers in the third class surged against authority and disrupted evacuation efforts, and instead summarises available evidence to determine that third class men had severely restricted access to lifeboats. It cites the moral problem of the dangerous individuals theory as a major contributing factor to the crew’s bias against them.Less
This final chapter concludes the findings of the journal. It states that contrary to the ‘popular story’ there exists no convincing evidence that passengers in the third class surged against authority and disrupted evacuation efforts, and instead summarises available evidence to determine that third class men had severely restricted access to lifeboats. It cites the moral problem of the dangerous individuals theory as a major contributing factor to the crew’s bias against them.
Sara B. Hobolt and James Tilley
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- April 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199665686
- eISBN:
- 9780191756115
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199665686.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Chapter 4 focuses on how citizens can ’get it wrong’ when assigning responsibility to the European Union. It shows that people’s views of EU responsibility demonstrate bias, coloured either by their ...
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Chapter 4 focuses on how citizens can ’get it wrong’ when assigning responsibility to the European Union. It shows that people’s views of EU responsibility demonstrate bias, coloured either by their support forthe EU project or their Euroscepticism. Similarly to partisanship in the national political domain, EU support acts as a perceptual screen. Using both survey and experimental data, the chapter demonstrates that EU supporters are more likely to claim responsibility for the EU when things are going well and less likely to say that the EU is responsible when things are going badly. It shows that judgements of responsibility are thus not merely a product of institutional differences in responsibility, but importantly are also used to reconcile predispositions about the EU with changing information about policy performance.Less
Chapter 4 focuses on how citizens can ’get it wrong’ when assigning responsibility to the European Union. It shows that people’s views of EU responsibility demonstrate bias, coloured either by their support forthe EU project or their Euroscepticism. Similarly to partisanship in the national political domain, EU support acts as a perceptual screen. Using both survey and experimental data, the chapter demonstrates that EU supporters are more likely to claim responsibility for the EU when things are going well and less likely to say that the EU is responsible when things are going badly. It shows that judgements of responsibility are thus not merely a product of institutional differences in responsibility, but importantly are also used to reconcile predispositions about the EU with changing information about policy performance.
Andrew Gelman and Deborah Nolan
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- September 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198785699
- eISBN:
- 9780191827518
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198785699.003.0011
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Educational Mathematics
We prefer the term “statistical communication,” but the phrase “how to lie with statistics” is a good hook to get students thinking about the issues involved. We try throughout to dampen the natural ...
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We prefer the term “statistical communication,” but the phrase “how to lie with statistics” is a good hook to get students thinking about the issues involved. We try throughout to dampen the natural cynicism that comes with this topic and emphasize that, to most effectively tell the truth, you must avoid lying by accident as well as on purpose. We illustrate the difficulties of statistical communication by bringing news articles to class to discuss. These activities move between small group and whole class discussion. Examples cover problems with ignoring the baseline, misleading comparisons, data dredging, and distinguishing sources of bias.Less
We prefer the term “statistical communication,” but the phrase “how to lie with statistics” is a good hook to get students thinking about the issues involved. We try throughout to dampen the natural cynicism that comes with this topic and emphasize that, to most effectively tell the truth, you must avoid lying by accident as well as on purpose. We illustrate the difficulties of statistical communication by bringing news articles to class to discuss. These activities move between small group and whole class discussion. Examples cover problems with ignoring the baseline, misleading comparisons, data dredging, and distinguishing sources of bias.
Guillaume Louvel
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- March 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780198794844
- eISBN:
- 9780191836336
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198794844.003.0022
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Logic / Computer Science / Mathematical Philosophy, Computational Mathematics / Optimization
This chapter discusses the user testing process in a lab and the inevitability of biases when testing under these conditions. It also describes the difficulties to obtain the data needed by the ...
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This chapter discusses the user testing process in a lab and the inevitability of biases when testing under these conditions. It also describes the difficulties to obtain the data needed by the researcher when the conditions are closer to real life, and the difficulties to project data to everyday situations when closer to experimental conditions. Lastly, it describes the importance of reducing biases in the study to increase its validity in order to obtain more useful and meaningful results.Less
This chapter discusses the user testing process in a lab and the inevitability of biases when testing under these conditions. It also describes the difficulties to obtain the data needed by the researcher when the conditions are closer to real life, and the difficulties to project data to everyday situations when closer to experimental conditions. Lastly, it describes the importance of reducing biases in the study to increase its validity in order to obtain more useful and meaningful results.
A.C.C. Coolen, A. Annibale, and E.S. Roberts
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198709893
- eISBN:
- 9780191780172
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198709893.003.0007
- Subject:
- Physics, Theoretical, Computational, and Statistical Physics
This chapter looks at further topics pertaining to the effective use of Markov Chain Monte Carlo to sample from hard- and soft-constrained exponential random graph models. The chapter considers the ...
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This chapter looks at further topics pertaining to the effective use of Markov Chain Monte Carlo to sample from hard- and soft-constrained exponential random graph models. The chapter considers the question of how moves can be sampled efficiently without introducing unintended bias. It is shown mathematically and numerically that apparently very similar methods of picking out moves can give rise to significant differences in the average topology of the networks generated by the MCMC process. The general discussion in complemented with pseudocode in the relevant section of the Algorithms chapter, which explicitly sets out some accurate and practical move sampling approaches. The chapter also describes how the MCMC equilibrium probabilities can be purposely deformed to, for example, target desired correlations between degrees of connected nodes. The mathematical exposition is complemented with graphs showing the results of numerical simulations.Less
This chapter looks at further topics pertaining to the effective use of Markov Chain Monte Carlo to sample from hard- and soft-constrained exponential random graph models. The chapter considers the question of how moves can be sampled efficiently without introducing unintended bias. It is shown mathematically and numerically that apparently very similar methods of picking out moves can give rise to significant differences in the average topology of the networks generated by the MCMC process. The general discussion in complemented with pseudocode in the relevant section of the Algorithms chapter, which explicitly sets out some accurate and practical move sampling approaches. The chapter also describes how the MCMC equilibrium probabilities can be purposely deformed to, for example, target desired correlations between degrees of connected nodes. The mathematical exposition is complemented with graphs showing the results of numerical simulations.
A.C.C. Coolen, A. Annibale, and E.S. Roberts
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198709893
- eISBN:
- 9780191780172
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198709893.003.0008
- Subject:
- Physics, Theoretical, Computational, and Statistical Physics
Growth processes are a fundamentally different approach compared to probability-driven exponential models covered in earlier chapters. This chapter studies how growth rules can be designed to mimic ...
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Growth processes are a fundamentally different approach compared to probability-driven exponential models covered in earlier chapters. This chapter studies how growth rules can be designed to mimic processes observed in the real world, and how the process can be mathematically analyzed in order to obtain information about the likely topological properties of the resulting networks. The configuration (stub joining) model is described, including a careful discussion of how bias can be introduced if backtracking is used instead of restarting if stubs join to form a self or double link. The second class of models looked at is preferential attachment. The simplest variants of this are analyzed with a master equation approach, in order to introduce this technique as a way of obtaining analytical information about the expected properties of the generated graphs. Extensive references are provided to the numerous variants and extensions of both of these models.Less
Growth processes are a fundamentally different approach compared to probability-driven exponential models covered in earlier chapters. This chapter studies how growth rules can be designed to mimic processes observed in the real world, and how the process can be mathematically analyzed in order to obtain information about the likely topological properties of the resulting networks. The configuration (stub joining) model is described, including a careful discussion of how bias can be introduced if backtracking is used instead of restarting if stubs join to form a self or double link. The second class of models looked at is preferential attachment. The simplest variants of this are analyzed with a master equation approach, in order to introduce this technique as a way of obtaining analytical information about the expected properties of the generated graphs. Extensive references are provided to the numerous variants and extensions of both of these models.
