Elisabeth Kontogiorgi
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199278961
- eISBN:
- 9780191706806
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199278961.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, Social History
This chapter begins with a discussion of Macedonia — its regional boundaries, economy, and population — and the ‘Macedonian Question’. It then considers the factors that made Macedonia a politically ...
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This chapter begins with a discussion of Macedonia — its regional boundaries, economy, and population — and the ‘Macedonian Question’. It then considers the factors that made Macedonia a politically sensitive region. Among these were the imminent political and social disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of nationalism among the Balkan peoples, the irredentist claims of the newly established Balkan states on territories outside their borders (and particularly on Macedonian lands inhabited by their unredeemed brethren), and finally Great Power rivalries in the area.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of Macedonia — its regional boundaries, economy, and population — and the ‘Macedonian Question’. It then considers the factors that made Macedonia a politically sensitive region. Among these were the imminent political and social disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of nationalism among the Balkan peoples, the irredentist claims of the newly established Balkan states on territories outside their borders (and particularly on Macedonian lands inhabited by their unredeemed brethren), and finally Great Power rivalries in the area.
R.J. Crampton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199541584
- eISBN:
- 9780191719325
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541584.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
Tracing the evolution of the Bulgarian state and its people, from the beginning of the Bulgarian national revival in the middle of the 19th century to the entry of the country into the European Union ...
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Tracing the evolution of the Bulgarian state and its people, from the beginning of the Bulgarian national revival in the middle of the 19th century to the entry of the country into the European Union (EU), this book examines key political, social, and economic developments, revealing the history of a country which evolved from a backward and troublesome Balkan state to become a modern European nation. Seeing the collapse as well as the establishment and evolution of communist rule, Bulgaria survived an often painful journey from monolithic authoritarianism to representative democracy and the market system. The book follows this journey, and analyses the development of Bulgaria's political culture by examining the emergence of radical movements, both agrarian and socialist, as well as looking at the role of religion and the position of minorities. The book highlights the problems and dilemmas created by the country's position situated between East and West, problems which might not be entirely solved by its admission to the EU.Less
Tracing the evolution of the Bulgarian state and its people, from the beginning of the Bulgarian national revival in the middle of the 19th century to the entry of the country into the European Union (EU), this book examines key political, social, and economic developments, revealing the history of a country which evolved from a backward and troublesome Balkan state to become a modern European nation. Seeing the collapse as well as the establishment and evolution of communist rule, Bulgaria survived an often painful journey from monolithic authoritarianism to representative democracy and the market system. The book follows this journey, and analyses the development of Bulgaria's political culture by examining the emergence of radical movements, both agrarian and socialist, as well as looking at the role of religion and the position of minorities. The book highlights the problems and dilemmas created by the country's position situated between East and West, problems which might not be entirely solved by its admission to the EU.
Vjekoslav Perica
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195148565
- eISBN:
- 9780199834556
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195148568.003.0012
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
The conclusion from the case study of the making and unmaking of Yugoslav states presented in this book, both in general, and in its religious dimension in particular, offers scholars a kind of ...
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The conclusion from the case study of the making and unmaking of Yugoslav states presented in this book, both in general, and in its religious dimension in particular, offers scholars a kind of “laboratory” from which findings and deductions can be made. These are discussed under the following headings: multinational states and legitimacy by religion; the myth of the religious revival; religion and Yugoslav communism; and the continuing Balkan nightmare.Less
The conclusion from the case study of the making and unmaking of Yugoslav states presented in this book, both in general, and in its religious dimension in particular, offers scholars a kind of “laboratory” from which findings and deductions can be made. These are discussed under the following headings: multinational states and legitimacy by religion; the myth of the religious revival; religion and Yugoslav communism; and the continuing Balkan nightmare.
Taner Akçam
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691153339
- eISBN:
- 9781400841844
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691153339.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
This chapter talks about how, throughout the years of 1913–14 until its entry into the war, the Ottoman government carried out a basic ethnic-cleansing operation, particularly against the Greeks in ...
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This chapter talks about how, throughout the years of 1913–14 until its entry into the war, the Ottoman government carried out a basic ethnic-cleansing operation, particularly against the Greeks in Thrace and the Aegean littoral. They used a dual-track mechanism extensively. On one hand, they signed separate “population exchange” agreements with the governments of the Balkan states; on the other hand, they terrorized Ottoman Greek subjects, including with massacres, to force them to move to Greece. This wide-scale suppressive policy brought the Ottomans to the brink of war with Greece in the summer of 1914. The policy of forceful expulsion of ethnic groups was not, however, unique to the Ottomans, as other Balkan countries also commonly employed it against Muslims.Less
This chapter talks about how, throughout the years of 1913–14 until its entry into the war, the Ottoman government carried out a basic ethnic-cleansing operation, particularly against the Greeks in Thrace and the Aegean littoral. They used a dual-track mechanism extensively. On one hand, they signed separate “population exchange” agreements with the governments of the Balkan states; on the other hand, they terrorized Ottoman Greek subjects, including with massacres, to force them to move to Greece. This wide-scale suppressive policy brought the Ottomans to the brink of war with Greece in the summer of 1914. The policy of forceful expulsion of ethnic groups was not, however, unique to the Ottomans, as other Balkan countries also commonly employed it against Muslims.
Vjekoslav Perica
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195148565
- eISBN:
- 9780199834556
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195148568.003.0011
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
The beginning of the chapter briefly discusses the degradation of the Balkan successor states to Yugoslavia, and the despise with which they were held by the West (except for Slovenia) – Serbia and ...
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The beginning of the chapter briefly discusses the degradation of the Balkan successor states to Yugoslavia, and the despise with which they were held by the West (except for Slovenia) – Serbia and Croatia came into conflict with the West, while Bosnia‐Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Macedonia became Western protectorates. The two main parts of the chapter discuss the role of the Catholic Church in the return of Croatia to the West, and the role of the Serbian Orthodox Church in relation to the West and the failure of the Serbian revolution under Milošević. The last part of the chapter discusses the legacy of Yugoslavia, and current attitudes to Balkan nationalism, which has undergone heavy blows from demography (a diminishing population of children and young people) and migration to the West – which have replaced Marxism as the new key menace to the Churches.Less
The beginning of the chapter briefly discusses the degradation of the Balkan successor states to Yugoslavia, and the despise with which they were held by the West (except for Slovenia) – Serbia and Croatia came into conflict with the West, while Bosnia‐Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Macedonia became Western protectorates. The two main parts of the chapter discuss the role of the Catholic Church in the return of Croatia to the West, and the role of the Serbian Orthodox Church in relation to the West and the failure of the Serbian revolution under Milošević. The last part of the chapter discusses the legacy of Yugoslavia, and current attitudes to Balkan nationalism, which has undergone heavy blows from demography (a diminishing population of children and young people) and migration to the West – which have replaced Marxism as the new key menace to the Churches.
Mark Biondich
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199299058
- eISBN:
- 9780191725074
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
In the interwar period, the modernizing and democratizing Balkan states witnessed a steady disintegration of parliamentary democracy and the concomitant rise of authoritarian leaders and modes of ...
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In the interwar period, the modernizing and democratizing Balkan states witnessed a steady disintegration of parliamentary democracy and the concomitant rise of authoritarian leaders and modes of governance. Thus, Albania (1928), Yugoslavia (1929), Bulgaria (1934), Greece (1936), and Romania (1938) all experienced dictatorships of the right. In the context of war, occupation, and revolution, Communist regimes emerged everywhere except Greece, which experienced civil war. This chapter assesses the reasons for the drift toward authoritarianism, examining the extent to which regional traditions and conflicts contributed to ostensibly modern forms of dictatorial government and political violence, and to what degree interwar authoritarianism contributed to a culture of intolerance.Less
In the interwar period, the modernizing and democratizing Balkan states witnessed a steady disintegration of parliamentary democracy and the concomitant rise of authoritarian leaders and modes of governance. Thus, Albania (1928), Yugoslavia (1929), Bulgaria (1934), Greece (1936), and Romania (1938) all experienced dictatorships of the right. In the context of war, occupation, and revolution, Communist regimes emerged everywhere except Greece, which experienced civil war. This chapter assesses the reasons for the drift toward authoritarianism, examining the extent to which regional traditions and conflicts contributed to ostensibly modern forms of dictatorial government and political violence, and to what degree interwar authoritarianism contributed to a culture of intolerance.
Richard C. Hall
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780813125589
- eISBN:
- 9780813135328
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Kentucky
- DOI:
- 10.5810/kentucky/9780813125589.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, Military History
The Balkan Wars resulted in huge military casualties, and in military terms, were the precursor of World War I. Mass mobilization, large turning movements, and trench warfare all occurred during the ...
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The Balkan Wars resulted in huge military casualties, and in military terms, were the precursor of World War I. Mass mobilization, large turning movements, and trench warfare all occurred during the conflict. New weapons, such as airplanes and rapid-fire artillery, were utilized. However, few lessons from the Balkan Wars enlightened the European military establishments that would soon find themselves engaged in conflict. One reason was the brief interval between the end of the Balkan Wars and the beginning of World War I. Another reason was that the Balkan states did not welcome foreigners who wanted to observe their operations. Many of those military attaches who did examine the Balkan Wars ignored the tactical lessons that might have had import for the conduct of World War I. Instead, they focused on issues that tended to confirm preconceived doctrines.Less
The Balkan Wars resulted in huge military casualties, and in military terms, were the precursor of World War I. Mass mobilization, large turning movements, and trench warfare all occurred during the conflict. New weapons, such as airplanes and rapid-fire artillery, were utilized. However, few lessons from the Balkan Wars enlightened the European military establishments that would soon find themselves engaged in conflict. One reason was the brief interval between the end of the Balkan Wars and the beginning of World War I. Another reason was that the Balkan states did not welcome foreigners who wanted to observe their operations. Many of those military attaches who did examine the Balkan Wars ignored the tactical lessons that might have had import for the conduct of World War I. Instead, they focused on issues that tended to confirm preconceived doctrines.
R. J. Crampton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199541584
- eISBN:
- 9780191719325
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541584.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
Like most other nations of modern Europe, the geographic spread of the Bulgarian state and nation have varied considerably with time. Again in conformity with other European models, the confines of ...
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Like most other nations of modern Europe, the geographic spread of the Bulgarian state and nation have varied considerably with time. Again in conformity with other European models, the confines of the Bulgarian nation and state have rarely been coterminous. The Bulgarian state seldom, if ever, contained only Bulgarians and, conversely, it equally infrequently encompassed all Bulgarians. Even at the opening of the 21st century, there were Bulgarian communities in Serbia, Romania, Albania, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Turkey, with emigre groups scattered throughout the world. The Bulgarian communities outside the confines of what is now the Republic of Bulgaria contributed hugely to the evolution of the nation and the foundation of the state. Nor did their contribution end with the liberation from Ottoman rule.Less
Like most other nations of modern Europe, the geographic spread of the Bulgarian state and nation have varied considerably with time. Again in conformity with other European models, the confines of the Bulgarian nation and state have rarely been coterminous. The Bulgarian state seldom, if ever, contained only Bulgarians and, conversely, it equally infrequently encompassed all Bulgarians. Even at the opening of the 21st century, there were Bulgarian communities in Serbia, Romania, Albania, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Turkey, with emigre groups scattered throughout the world. The Bulgarian communities outside the confines of what is now the Republic of Bulgaria contributed hugely to the evolution of the nation and the foundation of the state. Nor did their contribution end with the liberation from Ottoman rule.
R. J. Crampton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199541584
- eISBN:
- 9780191719325
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541584.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
National revival in Bulgaria exhibits many of the features of other nationalist reawakenings: a cultural quickening, the ‘apostles’ and ‘awakeners’, the emergence of an ‘imagined community’, the need ...
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National revival in Bulgaria exhibits many of the features of other nationalist reawakenings: a cultural quickening, the ‘apostles’ and ‘awakeners’, the emergence of an ‘imagined community’, the need for a committed social group with sufficient material wealth to further the cause, the importance of external as well as internal factors, and the equal or probably greater importance of ‘the defining other’. As with all other nationalisms, it was conditioned by historical, social, cultural, political, and international factors whose relative strengths and juxtapositions were unique. Furthermore, although the Bulgarian national state was a successor state of the Ottoman empire, the national revival that made that state possible, was, ironically, less the result of the empire's decline than of its regeneration. The evolution of Bulgaria's nationalism was conditioned by political and economic developments outside as well as within the Ottoman empire.Less
National revival in Bulgaria exhibits many of the features of other nationalist reawakenings: a cultural quickening, the ‘apostles’ and ‘awakeners’, the emergence of an ‘imagined community’, the need for a committed social group with sufficient material wealth to further the cause, the importance of external as well as internal factors, and the equal or probably greater importance of ‘the defining other’. As with all other nationalisms, it was conditioned by historical, social, cultural, political, and international factors whose relative strengths and juxtapositions were unique. Furthermore, although the Bulgarian national state was a successor state of the Ottoman empire, the national revival that made that state possible, was, ironically, less the result of the empire's decline than of its regeneration. The evolution of Bulgaria's nationalism was conditioned by political and economic developments outside as well as within the Ottoman empire.
Milada Anna Vachudova
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199260942
- eISBN:
- 9780191698705
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199260942.003.0006
- Subject:
- Law, EU Law
This chapter explores how the EU has worked to anchor the seven Balkan states into the process of European integration. Since 1999, the clear prospect of EU membership has provided a relatively ...
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This chapter explores how the EU has worked to anchor the seven Balkan states into the process of European integration. Since 1999, the clear prospect of EU membership has provided a relatively constant set of incentives for elites to pursue strategies of regional peace-building, ethnic tolerance, and economic reform. Before 1999, this prospect was much less clear — and the logic of qualifying for membership certainly failed to overpower domestic forces with very different political agendas in Croatia or Serbia. The prospect of eventual EU membership failed to motivate leaders in many Balkan states to follow a path of reform compatible with joining the EU as rapidly as possible. But it did not fail to motivate all of them.Less
This chapter explores how the EU has worked to anchor the seven Balkan states into the process of European integration. Since 1999, the clear prospect of EU membership has provided a relatively constant set of incentives for elites to pursue strategies of regional peace-building, ethnic tolerance, and economic reform. Before 1999, this prospect was much less clear — and the logic of qualifying for membership certainly failed to overpower domestic forces with very different political agendas in Croatia or Serbia. The prospect of eventual EU membership failed to motivate leaders in many Balkan states to follow a path of reform compatible with joining the EU as rapidly as possible. But it did not fail to motivate all of them.
R. J. Crampton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199541584
- eISBN:
- 9780191719325
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541584.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
In Great Britain during the second half of the 20th century, Bulgaria was probably the least known of all the East European states. Even Albania, under the egregious leadership of Enver Hoxha, seemed ...
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In Great Britain during the second half of the 20th century, Bulgaria was probably the least known of all the East European states. Even Albania, under the egregious leadership of Enver Hoxha, seemed to receive more media coverage. Only with the occasional scandal, such as the murder of Georgi Markov, was this apparent indifference abandoned and this ignorance dented. Shortly after the First World War, a major Bulgarian critic and scholar regretted that of all the foreign influences on Bulgarian culture, the English has been the weakest. The distance between Bulgaria and England remains too great today, even though Bulgaria is now on the threshold of membership of the European Union (EU).Less
In Great Britain during the second half of the 20th century, Bulgaria was probably the least known of all the East European states. Even Albania, under the egregious leadership of Enver Hoxha, seemed to receive more media coverage. Only with the occasional scandal, such as the murder of Georgi Markov, was this apparent indifference abandoned and this ignorance dented. Shortly after the First World War, a major Bulgarian critic and scholar regretted that of all the foreign influences on Bulgarian culture, the English has been the weakest. The distance between Bulgaria and England remains too great today, even though Bulgaria is now on the threshold of membership of the European Union (EU).
Pierre Sintès
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- September 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781786940896
- eISBN:
- 9781786944962
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Liverpool University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3828/liverpool/9781786940896.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
Since 2008, Greece has been at the centre of European current affairs due to the financial and economic crisis. However, it should not be forgotten that before the current crisis the political ...
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Since 2008, Greece has been at the centre of European current affairs due to the financial and economic crisis. However, it should not be forgotten that before the current crisis the political upheavals of the early 1990s and the collapse of Marxist-inspired regimes had already radically transformed the face of the country. These transformations have been seen as a return of the Balkans’ question, raising issues of border disputes and migration, minorities and national inclusion. They have had far-reaching consequences on the relations between Greek society and its peripheries, and what some have deemed to be its destabilising diversity. In this context, the material presented in this book examines the strengthening of discourses of belonging which draw legitimacy from a glorification of the past and tradition. The fieldwork carried out over the past 15 years on the fringes of Greece has focused on groups who were stigmatised and distanced from standard definitions of Greekness. It provides an original perspective on the changes that the country has undergone in recent decades. The question of the nation-state’s future is raised through close observation on the local scale, leading to a debate about the relationship between areal and reticular territory within the framework of globalisation. This book also aims to provide non-Francophone readers with access to research carried out on these issues in France, shifting the focus of Balkan Anglophone specialists for whom French publications remain a distant province.Less
Since 2008, Greece has been at the centre of European current affairs due to the financial and economic crisis. However, it should not be forgotten that before the current crisis the political upheavals of the early 1990s and the collapse of Marxist-inspired regimes had already radically transformed the face of the country. These transformations have been seen as a return of the Balkans’ question, raising issues of border disputes and migration, minorities and national inclusion. They have had far-reaching consequences on the relations between Greek society and its peripheries, and what some have deemed to be its destabilising diversity. In this context, the material presented in this book examines the strengthening of discourses of belonging which draw legitimacy from a glorification of the past and tradition. The fieldwork carried out over the past 15 years on the fringes of Greece has focused on groups who were stigmatised and distanced from standard definitions of Greekness. It provides an original perspective on the changes that the country has undergone in recent decades. The question of the nation-state’s future is raised through close observation on the local scale, leading to a debate about the relationship between areal and reticular territory within the framework of globalisation. This book also aims to provide non-Francophone readers with access to research carried out on these issues in France, shifting the focus of Balkan Anglophone specialists for whom French publications remain a distant province.
Paschalis M. Kitromilides
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- January 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780823256068
- eISBN:
- 9780823261307
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823256068.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
Nationalism as a force of change transforming European societies in the direction of modernity and secularization inevitably involved a confrontation with the Orthodox Church and with the foremost ...
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Nationalism as a force of change transforming European societies in the direction of modernity and secularization inevitably involved a confrontation with the Orthodox Church and with the foremost institution around which Orthodox society cohered in Southeastern Europe, the Patriarchate of Constantinople. This confrontation could be traced on three levels: first on the level of relations with the new national states of the Balkans, which claimed the autocephaly of their local churches as part of their nation-building process; secondly on the level of governance of the Orthodox community within the Ottoman Empire, a community which in the age of Ottoman reforms claimed a voice in the management of its affairs along the ecclesiastical hierarchy; thirdly on the level of relations with the Ottoman state, once the empire itself was set into the orbit of nationalist transformation.Less
Nationalism as a force of change transforming European societies in the direction of modernity and secularization inevitably involved a confrontation with the Orthodox Church and with the foremost institution around which Orthodox society cohered in Southeastern Europe, the Patriarchate of Constantinople. This confrontation could be traced on three levels: first on the level of relations with the new national states of the Balkans, which claimed the autocephaly of their local churches as part of their nation-building process; secondly on the level of governance of the Orthodox community within the Ottoman Empire, a community which in the age of Ottoman reforms claimed a voice in the management of its affairs along the ecclesiastical hierarchy; thirdly on the level of relations with the Ottoman state, once the empire itself was set into the orbit of nationalist transformation.