Florian Grotz and Maria Rodriguez‐McKey
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199249589
- eISBN:
- 9780191600029
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019924958X.003.0016
- Subject:
- Political Science, Reference
Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Armenia both during the short period of independence in 1919–1920 and since the establishment of the Second Republic in ...
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Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Armenia both during the short period of independence in 1919–1920 and since the establishment of the Second Republic in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Armenia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).Less
Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Armenia both during the short period of independence in 1919–1920 and since the establishment of the Second Republic in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Armenia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Donald Miller
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520234925
- eISBN:
- 9780520929142
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520234925.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
A remarkable view of how geopolitics affects ordinary people, this book documents the lives of Armenians in the last two decades. Based on intimate interviews with 300 Armenians, it brings together ...
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A remarkable view of how geopolitics affects ordinary people, this book documents the lives of Armenians in the last two decades. Based on intimate interviews with 300 Armenians, it brings together firsthand testimony about the social, economic, and spiritual circumstances of Armenians during the 1980s and 1990s, when the country faced an earthquake, pogroms, and war. The book is a story of extreme suffering and hardship, a searching look at the fight for independence and a complex portrait of the human spirit. A companion to Survivors: An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide by the same authors, it focuses on four groups of people: survivors of the earthquakes that devastated northwestern Armenia in 1988; refugees from Azerbaijan who fled Baku and Sumgait because of pogroms against them; women, children, and soldiers who were affected by the war in Nagorno-Karabakh; and ordinary citizens who survived several winters without heat because of the blockade against Armenia by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The authors' narrative situates these accounts contextually and thematically, but the voices of individuals remain paramount.Less
A remarkable view of how geopolitics affects ordinary people, this book documents the lives of Armenians in the last two decades. Based on intimate interviews with 300 Armenians, it brings together firsthand testimony about the social, economic, and spiritual circumstances of Armenians during the 1980s and 1990s, when the country faced an earthquake, pogroms, and war. The book is a story of extreme suffering and hardship, a searching look at the fight for independence and a complex portrait of the human spirit. A companion to Survivors: An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide by the same authors, it focuses on four groups of people: survivors of the earthquakes that devastated northwestern Armenia in 1988; refugees from Azerbaijan who fled Baku and Sumgait because of pogroms against them; women, children, and soldiers who were affected by the war in Nagorno-Karabakh; and ordinary citizens who survived several winters without heat because of the blockade against Armenia by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The authors' narrative situates these accounts contextually and thematically, but the voices of individuals remain paramount.
Tsolin Nalbantian
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- September 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781474458566
- eISBN:
- 9781474480703
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474458566.001.0001
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Middle Eastern Studies
A socio-political and cultural history of the Armenians in Cold War Lebanon, this book argues that Armenians around the world – in the face of the Genocide, and despite the absence of an independent ...
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A socio-political and cultural history of the Armenians in Cold War Lebanon, this book argues that Armenians around the world – in the face of the Genocide, and despite the absence of an independent nation-state after World War I – developed dynamic socio-political, cultural, ideological and ecclesiastical centres. And it focuses on one such centre, Beirut, in the postcolonial 1940s and 1950s.
Tsolin Nalbantian explores Armenians’ discursive re-positioning within the newly independent Lebanese nation-state; the political-cultural impact (in Lebanon as well as Syria) of the 1946–8 repatriation initiative to Soviet Armenia; the 1956 Catholicos election; and the 1957 Lebanese elections and 1958 mini-civil war. What emerges is a post-Genocide Armenian history of – principally – power, renewal and presence, rather than one of loss and absence.
Armenians Beyond Diaspora: Making Lebanon Their Own investigates Lebanese Armenians’ changing views of their place in the making of the Lebanese state and its wider Arab environment, and in relation to the Armenian Socialist Soviet Republic. It challenges the dominant Armenian historiography, which treats Lebanese Armenians as a subsidiary of an Armenian global diaspora, and contributes to an understanding of the development of class and sectarian cleavages that led to the breakdown of civil society in Lebanon from 1975. In highlighting the role of societal actors in the US–Soviet Cold War in the Middle East, it also questions the tendency to read Middle East history through the lens of dominant (Arab) nationalisms.Less
A socio-political and cultural history of the Armenians in Cold War Lebanon, this book argues that Armenians around the world – in the face of the Genocide, and despite the absence of an independent nation-state after World War I – developed dynamic socio-political, cultural, ideological and ecclesiastical centres. And it focuses on one such centre, Beirut, in the postcolonial 1940s and 1950s.
Tsolin Nalbantian explores Armenians’ discursive re-positioning within the newly independent Lebanese nation-state; the political-cultural impact (in Lebanon as well as Syria) of the 1946–8 repatriation initiative to Soviet Armenia; the 1956 Catholicos election; and the 1957 Lebanese elections and 1958 mini-civil war. What emerges is a post-Genocide Armenian history of – principally – power, renewal and presence, rather than one of loss and absence.
Armenians Beyond Diaspora: Making Lebanon Their Own investigates Lebanese Armenians’ changing views of their place in the making of the Lebanese state and its wider Arab environment, and in relation to the Armenian Socialist Soviet Republic. It challenges the dominant Armenian historiography, which treats Lebanese Armenians as a subsidiary of an Armenian global diaspora, and contributes to an understanding of the development of class and sectarian cleavages that led to the breakdown of civil society in Lebanon from 1975. In highlighting the role of societal actors in the US–Soviet Cold War in the Middle East, it also questions the tendency to read Middle East history through the lens of dominant (Arab) nationalisms.
Charles King
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195177756
- eISBN:
- 9780199870127
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195177756.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, World Modern History
The 1970s and 1980s were characterized by the long tenure in office of important Communist Party secretaries in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, including Heydar Aliyev and Eduard Shevardnadze. All ...
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The 1970s and 1980s were characterized by the long tenure in office of important Communist Party secretaries in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, including Heydar Aliyev and Eduard Shevardnadze. All were involved in building modern and stable Soviet republics after the disruptions of Stalinism, but each also spent a great deal of time battling corruption. Nationalism prompted the three south Caucasus republics to exit the Soviet Union, but it also created serious problems internally, given the secession of territories such as Abkhazia and Nagorno‐Karabakh. Russia's own secessionist struggle with Chechnya defined the north Caucasus in the 1990s.Less
The 1970s and 1980s were characterized by the long tenure in office of important Communist Party secretaries in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, including Heydar Aliyev and Eduard Shevardnadze. All were involved in building modern and stable Soviet republics after the disruptions of Stalinism, but each also spent a great deal of time battling corruption. Nationalism prompted the three south Caucasus republics to exit the Soviet Union, but it also created serious problems internally, given the secession of territories such as Abkhazia and Nagorno‐Karabakh. Russia's own secessionist struggle with Chechnya defined the north Caucasus in the 1990s.
Charles King
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195177756
- eISBN:
- 9780199870127
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195177756.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, World Modern History
Can the Caucasus ever be considered part of Europe? This concluding chapter assesses the future directions of politics and society in the Caucasus, both the three independent countries of the south ...
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Can the Caucasus ever be considered part of Europe? This concluding chapter assesses the future directions of politics and society in the Caucasus, both the three independent countries of the south (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia) and the various north Caucasus republics of Russia. The European Union has shown increasing interest in the region since the late 1990s, but the United States and Russia remain the two powers whose interests are most affected by developments there.Less
Can the Caucasus ever be considered part of Europe? This concluding chapter assesses the future directions of politics and society in the Caucasus, both the three independent countries of the south (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia) and the various north Caucasus republics of Russia. The European Union has shown increasing interest in the region since the late 1990s, but the United States and Russia remain the two powers whose interests are most affected by developments there.
Laurence Broers
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781474450522
- eISBN:
- 9781474476546
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
The Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict is the longest-running dispute in Eurasia. This study looks beyond tabloid tropes of ‘frozen conflict’ or ‘Russian land-grab’, to unpack both unresolved territorial ...
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The Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict is the longest-running dispute in Eurasia. This study looks beyond tabloid tropes of ‘frozen conflict’ or ‘Russian land-grab’, to unpack both unresolved territorial issues left over from the 1990s and the strategic rivalry that has built up around them since then. Unstable and overlapping conceptions of homeland have characterised the Armenian and Azerbaijani republics since their first emergence in 1918. Seventy years of incorporation into the Soviet Union did not resolve these issues. As they emerged from the Soviet collapse in 1991, Armenians and Azerbaijanis fought for sovereignty over Nagorny Karabakh, leading to its secession from Azerbaijan, the deaths of more than 25,000 people and the forced displacement of more than a million more. Since then, the conflict has evolved into an ‘enduring rivalry’, a particularly intractable form of long-term militarised competition between two states. Combining perspectives rarely found in a single volume, the study shows how these outcomes became intractably embedded within the regime politics, strategic interactions and international linkages of post-war Armenia and Azerbaijan. Far from ‘frozen’, this book demonstrates how more than two decades of dynamic conceptions of territory, shifting power relations, international diffusion and unsuccessful mediation efforts have contributed to the resilience of this stubbornly unresolved dispute – one of the most intractable of our times.Less
The Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict is the longest-running dispute in Eurasia. This study looks beyond tabloid tropes of ‘frozen conflict’ or ‘Russian land-grab’, to unpack both unresolved territorial issues left over from the 1990s and the strategic rivalry that has built up around them since then. Unstable and overlapping conceptions of homeland have characterised the Armenian and Azerbaijani republics since their first emergence in 1918. Seventy years of incorporation into the Soviet Union did not resolve these issues. As they emerged from the Soviet collapse in 1991, Armenians and Azerbaijanis fought for sovereignty over Nagorny Karabakh, leading to its secession from Azerbaijan, the deaths of more than 25,000 people and the forced displacement of more than a million more. Since then, the conflict has evolved into an ‘enduring rivalry’, a particularly intractable form of long-term militarised competition between two states. Combining perspectives rarely found in a single volume, the study shows how these outcomes became intractably embedded within the regime politics, strategic interactions and international linkages of post-war Armenia and Azerbaijan. Far from ‘frozen’, this book demonstrates how more than two decades of dynamic conceptions of territory, shifting power relations, international diffusion and unsuccessful mediation efforts have contributed to the resilience of this stubbornly unresolved dispute – one of the most intractable of our times.
James Howard‐Johnston
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199208593
- eISBN:
- 9780191594182
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208593.003.0004
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, World History: BCE to 500CE
An Armenian history traditionally attributed to Sebeos is identified as the History of Khosrov (i.e. Khusro II Parvez). The author, probably a bishop, begins with the circumstances of Khusro's ...
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An Armenian history traditionally attributed to Sebeos is identified as the History of Khosrov (i.e. Khusro II Parvez). The author, probably a bishop, begins with the circumstances of Khusro's accession, before covering his reign, an opening period of good relations with the Romans (591–602), then his long war with them (603–28). He shows becoming editorial restraint. He supplies much new information about the war. Yet more important is his account of the Arab conquests and subsequent events up to the end of the first Arab civil war (661), including a summary biography of Muhammad and vital pieces of information about the conquest of Palestine. Nine distinct sources of information are identified, including four documents and three official sources (two of them Persian). The high quality of the material is demonstrated by a comparison with data sifted out in Ch. 2.Less
An Armenian history traditionally attributed to Sebeos is identified as the History of Khosrov (i.e. Khusro II Parvez). The author, probably a bishop, begins with the circumstances of Khusro's accession, before covering his reign, an opening period of good relations with the Romans (591–602), then his long war with them (603–28). He shows becoming editorial restraint. He supplies much new information about the war. Yet more important is his account of the Arab conquests and subsequent events up to the end of the first Arab civil war (661), including a summary biography of Muhammad and vital pieces of information about the conquest of Palestine. Nine distinct sources of information are identified, including four documents and three official sources (two of them Persian). The high quality of the material is demonstrated by a comparison with data sifted out in Ch. 2.
James Howard‐Johnston
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199208593
- eISBN:
- 9780191594182
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208593.003.0005
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, World History: BCE to 500CE
A second seventh‐century Armenian history, dating from soon after 682, is disinterred from the universal history of Caucasian Albania, put together by Movses Daskhurants'i in the tenth century. Like ...
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A second seventh‐century Armenian history, dating from soon after 682, is disinterred from the universal history of Caucasian Albania, put together by Movses Daskhurants'i in the tenth century. Like ps. Sebeos, this seventh‐century historian is shown to have refrained from introducing his own views into the material he extracted from his four principal sources. The information supplied is demonstrably of high quality and extends historical coverage to Turkish diplomatic and military activity in Transcaucasia in the 620s and forward in time to the caliphate of Mu‘awiya (660–80). Especially valuable are accounts of Arab operations in Mesopotamia and of two visits paid by the leading Albanian prince to Mu‘awiya's court at Damascus. The Khuzistan Chronicle, by contrast, presents a pared‐down version of history (from 579 to 652), enlivened with anecdotal material, of relatively little interest. However, a continuation includes a well‐articulated account of the Arab conquest of Khuzistan.Less
A second seventh‐century Armenian history, dating from soon after 682, is disinterred from the universal history of Caucasian Albania, put together by Movses Daskhurants'i in the tenth century. Like ps. Sebeos, this seventh‐century historian is shown to have refrained from introducing his own views into the material he extracted from his four principal sources. The information supplied is demonstrably of high quality and extends historical coverage to Turkish diplomatic and military activity in Transcaucasia in the 620s and forward in time to the caliphate of Mu‘awiya (660–80). Especially valuable are accounts of Arab operations in Mesopotamia and of two visits paid by the leading Albanian prince to Mu‘awiya's court at Damascus. The Khuzistan Chronicle, by contrast, presents a pared‐down version of history (from 579 to 652), enlivened with anecdotal material, of relatively little interest. However, a continuation includes a well‐articulated account of the Arab conquest of Khuzistan.
Henry Chadwick
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199246953
- eISBN:
- 9780191600463
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199246955.003.0024
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
The position of Dionysius, made bishop of Alexandria in about 247, meant that he was called upon to comment on controversial matters in a time of great difficulty and persecution. This led to ...
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The position of Dionysius, made bishop of Alexandria in about 247, meant that he was called upon to comment on controversial matters in a time of great difficulty and persecution. This led to disagreements over the nature of Christ with the bishop of Rome, another Dionysius. While Rome was primarily concerned with the affirmation of monotheism, Alexandria was more concerned with protecting the threeness and Christian understanding of God. These differences point to a broad difference of approach to the doctrine of God between the Latin west and the Greek east. Latin theologians sympathizing with Alexandria were accused of Arianism, i.e. denying the complete divinity of Jesus. East and west also differed over baptism. A letter by Dionysius indicates the conversion of the Armenians to Christianity.Less
The position of Dionysius, made bishop of Alexandria in about 247, meant that he was called upon to comment on controversial matters in a time of great difficulty and persecution. This led to disagreements over the nature of Christ with the bishop of Rome, another Dionysius. While Rome was primarily concerned with the affirmation of monotheism, Alexandria was more concerned with protecting the threeness and Christian understanding of God. These differences point to a broad difference of approach to the doctrine of God between the Latin west and the Greek east. Latin theologians sympathizing with Alexandria were accused of Arianism, i.e. denying the complete divinity of Jesus. East and west also differed over baptism. A letter by Dionysius indicates the conversion of the Armenians to Christianity.
Adam T. Smith
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691163239
- eISBN:
- 9781400866502
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691163239.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, Ancient History / Archaeology
This concluding chapter returns to the overarching question that opened the Introduction—how do objects shape our political lives?—by drawing insights gained from the Bronze Age Caucasus into a wider ...
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This concluding chapter returns to the overarching question that opened the Introduction—how do objects shape our political lives?—by drawing insights gained from the Bronze Age Caucasus into a wider reflection on the political work of things in contemporary moments of revolution and reproduction. It discusses the events leading up to Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution and its aftermath; the Soviet Union's commemoration in 1968 of the founding of the Urartian fortress at Erebuni, on the outskirts of Yerevan, Armenia, which inaugurated a new archaeologically derived assemblage that transformed the material fabric of Yerevan; and a fairy tale written by Armenian poet Hovannes Toumanyan about Brother Axe.Less
This concluding chapter returns to the overarching question that opened the Introduction—how do objects shape our political lives?—by drawing insights gained from the Bronze Age Caucasus into a wider reflection on the political work of things in contemporary moments of revolution and reproduction. It discusses the events leading up to Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution and its aftermath; the Soviet Union's commemoration in 1968 of the founding of the Urartian fortress at Erebuni, on the outskirts of Yerevan, Armenia, which inaugurated a new archaeologically derived assemblage that transformed the material fabric of Yerevan; and a fairy tale written by Armenian poet Hovannes Toumanyan about Brother Axe.
Philip Jenkins
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195146165
- eISBN:
- 9780199834341
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195146166.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
This chapter addresses the myth of Western Christianity and outlines the true origins and development of Christianity, as opposed to those presented in the history books. Accounts are given of the ...
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This chapter addresses the myth of Western Christianity and outlines the true origins and development of Christianity, as opposed to those presented in the history books. Accounts are given of the early Eastern churches, particularly those in Ethiopia and Armenia, and of the survival of Christian traditions in Asia and Africa through the Middles Ages, and under Islamic (Muslim) rule. Next, an analysis is presented of the size of Christian communities that survived under Muslim rule in ancient and medieval times and up to the early twentieth century, and the question addressed as to why, when Christians survived Muslim conquests so successfully, they form such a small minority in the modern Middle East. Further sections of the chapter discuss the Catholic missions that took place from about 1500 and the different ways in which Christianity developed in countries beyond the reach of the European empires, where missionaries where not able to enforce their will politically, and in those countries where this was not the case; and the adaptation of the gospel to local cultures, customs, and practices in countries where there was no imperial backing is described, with particular reference to the “silk strategy” in Japan (where the priests dressed in silk in preference to cotton and thus identified themselves with the social elite, who were able to assist in the spread of Christianity), and Jesuit missions to China. The last part of the chapter looks at Protestant missions from the late eighteenth century in Africa and China.Less
This chapter addresses the myth of Western Christianity and outlines the true origins and development of Christianity, as opposed to those presented in the history books. Accounts are given of the early Eastern churches, particularly those in Ethiopia and Armenia, and of the survival of Christian traditions in Asia and Africa through the Middles Ages, and under Islamic (Muslim) rule. Next, an analysis is presented of the size of Christian communities that survived under Muslim rule in ancient and medieval times and up to the early twentieth century, and the question addressed as to why, when Christians survived Muslim conquests so successfully, they form such a small minority in the modern Middle East. Further sections of the chapter discuss the Catholic missions that took place from about 1500 and the different ways in which Christianity developed in countries beyond the reach of the European empires, where missionaries where not able to enforce their will politically, and in those countries where this was not the case; and the adaptation of the gospel to local cultures, customs, and practices in countries where there was no imperial backing is described, with particular reference to the “silk strategy” in Japan (where the priests dressed in silk in preference to cotton and thus identified themselves with the social elite, who were able to assist in the spread of Christianity), and Jesuit missions to China. The last part of the chapter looks at Protestant missions from the late eighteenth century in Africa and China.
J. M. Hussey
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780198264569
- eISBN:
- 9780191601170
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198264569.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
Starts by discussing the impending internal and external threats to the Byzantine Empire in 1025–1204, which led in the later Middle Ages to any pre‐eminence in East Mediterranean politics being lost ...
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Starts by discussing the impending internal and external threats to the Byzantine Empire in 1025–1204, which led in the later Middle Ages to any pre‐eminence in East Mediterranean politics being lost until the Empire was finally submerged into the Muslim Ottoman Empire. The Orthodox Church itself, however, survived this downfall. Sections 2–4 of the chapter discuss the following: the successive patriarchs in the period 1025–81; continuity in the period 1081–1180, when for nearly 100 years three able rulers (Emperors Alexius I Comenus, his son John II Comenus, and grandson Manuel I Comenus) gave an apparent measure of stability to Byzantium; heresy trials during the patriarchates of Cosmas I (1075–81) and Eustratius Garidas (1081–4), who did not themselves take the lead against the philosopher intellectuals, which was rather taken by Emperors Alexius I and Manuel I. The fifth section discusses the dualist heresies and actions taken against them—the Armenian Paulicians, whose essence of belief was that there is a distinction between the two principles of good and evil, with matter regarded as evil so that the fundamental Christian belief in the incarnation and in the sacraments and hierarchy were rejected, and the Bulgarian Bogomilism, which is closely linked to Messalianism. The last section discusses the changing relations of Byzantium (and the Orthodox Church) with the West and the first four crusades (1097–1204).Less
Starts by discussing the impending internal and external threats to the Byzantine Empire in 1025–1204, which led in the later Middle Ages to any pre‐eminence in East Mediterranean politics being lost until the Empire was finally submerged into the Muslim Ottoman Empire. The Orthodox Church itself, however, survived this downfall. Sections 2–4 of the chapter discuss the following: the successive patriarchs in the period 1025–81; continuity in the period 1081–1180, when for nearly 100 years three able rulers (Emperors Alexius I Comenus, his son John II Comenus, and grandson Manuel I Comenus) gave an apparent measure of stability to Byzantium; heresy trials during the patriarchates of Cosmas I (1075–81) and Eustratius Garidas (1081–4), who did not themselves take the lead against the philosopher intellectuals, which was rather taken by Emperors Alexius I and Manuel I. The fifth section discusses the dualist heresies and actions taken against them—the Armenian Paulicians, whose essence of belief was that there is a distinction between the two principles of good and evil, with matter regarded as evil so that the fundamental Christian belief in the incarnation and in the sacraments and hierarchy were rejected, and the Bulgarian Bogomilism, which is closely linked to Messalianism. The last section discusses the changing relations of Byzantium (and the Orthodox Church) with the West and the first four crusades (1097–1204).
Peter J. Yearwood
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199226733
- eISBN:
- 9780191710308
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226733.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
After American rejection of the Covenant, which London could not influence, the League was overshadowed by the Allied Supreme Council which tackled the main post‐war issues. The British supported the ...
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After American rejection of the Covenant, which London could not influence, the League was overshadowed by the Allied Supreme Council which tackled the main post‐war issues. The British supported the Canadian attempt to delete article 10 (the territorial guarantee) but this was not seen as an important issue. Nor was the elaboration of procedures for sanctions under article 16 (the guarantee of peace) through the nineteen resolutions of 1921. Lord Curzon succeeded Balfour as Foreign Secretary. Rejecting balance of power politics, he valued the League as embodying moral principles in the conduct of international affairs. The League was involved in the resolution of several crises including Armenia (1920), North Persia (1920), Vilna (1920–3), Upper Silesia (1921), and Albania (1921). Its record was mixed. Meanwhile, Cecil, aiming to replace Lloyd George with a high‐minded coalition under Grey, turned the League of Nations Union into a significant force in British politics.Less
After American rejection of the Covenant, which London could not influence, the League was overshadowed by the Allied Supreme Council which tackled the main post‐war issues. The British supported the Canadian attempt to delete article 10 (the territorial guarantee) but this was not seen as an important issue. Nor was the elaboration of procedures for sanctions under article 16 (the guarantee of peace) through the nineteen resolutions of 1921. Lord Curzon succeeded Balfour as Foreign Secretary. Rejecting balance of power politics, he valued the League as embodying moral principles in the conduct of international affairs. The League was involved in the resolution of several crises including Armenia (1920), North Persia (1920), Vilna (1920–3), Upper Silesia (1921), and Albania (1921). Its record was mixed. Meanwhile, Cecil, aiming to replace Lloyd George with a high‐minded coalition under Grey, turned the League of Nations Union into a significant force in British politics.
Tim Greenwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263785
- eISBN:
- 9780191734304
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263785.003.0010
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter discusses Armenian sources, which can be divided into two categories: historical compositions and other sources, such as prosopographical data. Each category of Armenian sources is ...
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This chapter discusses Armenian sources, which can be divided into two categories: historical compositions and other sources, such as prosopographical data. Each category of Armenian sources is discussed and examined in detail. The chapter determines that Armenian sources appear manageable in the context of prosopography. Aside from providing records of the history of Armenia, these sources can supply useful and sometimes unique information about eleventh-century Byzantine history.Less
This chapter discusses Armenian sources, which can be divided into two categories: historical compositions and other sources, such as prosopographical data. Each category of Armenian sources is discussed and examined in detail. The chapter determines that Armenian sources appear manageable in the context of prosopography. Aside from providing records of the history of Armenia, these sources can supply useful and sometimes unique information about eleventh-century Byzantine history.
BRUCE M. METZGER
- Published in print:
- 1977
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198261704
- eISBN:
- 9780191682209
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198261704.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Biblical Studies, Early Christian Studies
This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Armenia and the translation of the New Testament in Armenia. Armenia claims the honour of being the first kingdom to accept Christianity ...
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This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Armenia and the translation of the New Testament in Armenia. Armenia claims the honour of being the first kingdom to accept Christianity as its official religion. The most ancient Armenian manuscripts of the Gospels, all dates from the 9th and 10th centuries. Among the noteworthy features of the Armenian version of the Bible was the inclusion of the History of Joseph and Asenath and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in the Old Testament, and the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul and a Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in the New Testament. Another characteristic feature of the Armenian version involves ‘Targum Translations’. These are readings that provide the reader with a generally faithful and idiomatic rendering praised for its clarity and dignity of expressions.Less
This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Armenia and the translation of the New Testament in Armenia. Armenia claims the honour of being the first kingdom to accept Christianity as its official religion. The most ancient Armenian manuscripts of the Gospels, all dates from the 9th and 10th centuries. Among the noteworthy features of the Armenian version of the Bible was the inclusion of the History of Joseph and Asenath and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in the Old Testament, and the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul and a Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in the New Testament. Another characteristic feature of the Armenian version involves ‘Targum Translations’. These are readings that provide the reader with a generally faithful and idiomatic rendering praised for its clarity and dignity of expressions.
Kendall Stiles
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195380088
- eISBN:
- 9780199855377
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195380088.003.0008
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
This chapter focuses on the development of international norms prohibiting genocide. Prior to the beginning of the 20th century, genocidal killing occurred with depressing regularity around the ...
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This chapter focuses on the development of international norms prohibiting genocide. Prior to the beginning of the 20th century, genocidal killing occurred with depressing regularity around the world. From Antiquity through the Middle Ages, victors in war considered such massacres a necessary element in suppressing conquered and rebellious peoples. These atrocities rarely elicited anything more than expressions of regret from the international community. Against this context, the international norm prohibiting genocide developed through two cycles of norm change, one triggered by the Armenian genocide of 1915 and a second following the Holocaust. Subsequent cycles clarified the application of the norm.Less
This chapter focuses on the development of international norms prohibiting genocide. Prior to the beginning of the 20th century, genocidal killing occurred with depressing regularity around the world. From Antiquity through the Middle Ages, victors in war considered such massacres a necessary element in suppressing conquered and rebellious peoples. These atrocities rarely elicited anything more than expressions of regret from the international community. Against this context, the international norm prohibiting genocide developed through two cycles of norm change, one triggered by the Armenian genocide of 1915 and a second following the Holocaust. Subsequent cycles clarified the application of the norm.
Donald Bloxham
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199273560
- eISBN:
- 9780191699689
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199273560.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
This book addresses the origins, development, and aftermath of the Armenian genocide in a reappraisal based on primary and secondary sources from all the major parties involved. Rejecting the ...
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This book addresses the origins, development, and aftermath of the Armenian genocide in a reappraisal based on primary and secondary sources from all the major parties involved. Rejecting the determinism of many influential studies, and discarding polemics on all sides, it founds its interpretation of the genocide in the interaction between the Ottoman empire in its decades of terminal decline, the self-interested policies of the European imperial powers, and the agenda of some Armenian nationalists in and beyond Ottoman territory. Particular attention is paid to the international context of the process of ethnic polarization that culminated in the massive destruction of 1912–23, and especially the obliteration of the Armenian community in 1915–16. The book examines the relationship between the great power politics of the ‘eastern question’ from 1774, the narrower politics of the ‘Armenian question’ from the mid-19th century, and the internal Ottoman questions regarding reform of the complex social and ethnic order under intense external pressure. It presents detailed case studies of the role of Imperial Germany during the First World War (reaching conclusions markedly different to the prevailing orthodoxy of German complicity in the genocide); the wartime Entente and then the uncomfortable postwar Anglo-French axis; and American political interest in the Middle East in the interwar period which led to a policy of refusing to recognize the genocide.Less
This book addresses the origins, development, and aftermath of the Armenian genocide in a reappraisal based on primary and secondary sources from all the major parties involved. Rejecting the determinism of many influential studies, and discarding polemics on all sides, it founds its interpretation of the genocide in the interaction between the Ottoman empire in its decades of terminal decline, the self-interested policies of the European imperial powers, and the agenda of some Armenian nationalists in and beyond Ottoman territory. Particular attention is paid to the international context of the process of ethnic polarization that culminated in the massive destruction of 1912–23, and especially the obliteration of the Armenian community in 1915–16. The book examines the relationship between the great power politics of the ‘eastern question’ from 1774, the narrower politics of the ‘Armenian question’ from the mid-19th century, and the internal Ottoman questions regarding reform of the complex social and ethnic order under intense external pressure. It presents detailed case studies of the role of Imperial Germany during the First World War (reaching conclusions markedly different to the prevailing orthodoxy of German complicity in the genocide); the wartime Entente and then the uncomfortable postwar Anglo-French axis; and American political interest in the Middle East in the interwar period which led to a policy of refusing to recognize the genocide.
Donald Bloxham
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199273560
- eISBN:
- 9780191699689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199273560.003.0008
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
The U.S. Congress refused to pass resolutions identifying as genocide the destruction of the Armenians. If the Europeans could discard the Armenians as easily as they had picked them up, American ...
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The U.S. Congress refused to pass resolutions identifying as genocide the destruction of the Armenians. If the Europeans could discard the Armenians as easily as they had picked them up, American diplomats also swiftly learned that there was no political capital to be made in the Armenian cause. As with Germany in the 1890s, a useful means for the furtherance of political ends in Turkey for a power with aspirations in the region was a declaration of non-interest in the Armenian question. The strength of the diplomatic disavowal of concern was in direct proportion to the strength of American domestic sentiment that continued, unrealistically, to push for the establishment of an independent Armenia after Mustafa Kemal's defeat of the Greeks. The United States' non-intervention was highly selective and self-interested, which translated into a compliant policy of distortion and non-recognition of the events of 1915–1916.Less
The U.S. Congress refused to pass resolutions identifying as genocide the destruction of the Armenians. If the Europeans could discard the Armenians as easily as they had picked them up, American diplomats also swiftly learned that there was no political capital to be made in the Armenian cause. As with Germany in the 1890s, a useful means for the furtherance of political ends in Turkey for a power with aspirations in the region was a declaration of non-interest in the Armenian question. The strength of the diplomatic disavowal of concern was in direct proportion to the strength of American domestic sentiment that continued, unrealistically, to push for the establishment of an independent Armenia after Mustafa Kemal's defeat of the Greeks. The United States' non-intervention was highly selective and self-interested, which translated into a compliant policy of distortion and non-recognition of the events of 1915–1916.
Laurence Broers
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781474450522
- eISBN:
- 9781474476546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This introductory chapter familiarises the reader with the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, and situates the conflict within the wider field of post-Soviet territorial disputes. It introduces the main ...
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This introductory chapter familiarises the reader with the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, and situates the conflict within the wider field of post-Soviet territorial disputes. It introduces the main conceptual tools used in subsequent chapters: critical geopolitical analysis and the enduring rivalry framework. The text also provides a guide to the chapters that follow.Less
This introductory chapter familiarises the reader with the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, and situates the conflict within the wider field of post-Soviet territorial disputes. It introduces the main conceptual tools used in subsequent chapters: critical geopolitical analysis and the enduring rivalry framework. The text also provides a guide to the chapters that follow.
Laurence Broers
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781474450522
- eISBN:
- 9781474476546
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This chapter provides background on the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict as it unfolded in 1988-1994. Rather than a chronological narrative, the chapter tells the story of these events through the prism ...
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This chapter provides background on the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict as it unfolded in 1988-1994. Rather than a chronological narrative, the chapter tells the story of these events through the prism of four categories of explanation (structural vulnerabilities, transitional factors, leadership and culture). This situates the conflict against the backdrop of the Soviet collapse, equips the reader with basic facts, and distils the main findings of the existing literature on the conflict.Less
This chapter provides background on the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict as it unfolded in 1988-1994. Rather than a chronological narrative, the chapter tells the story of these events through the prism of four categories of explanation (structural vulnerabilities, transitional factors, leadership and culture). This situates the conflict against the backdrop of the Soviet collapse, equips the reader with basic facts, and distils the main findings of the existing literature on the conflict.
