Thomas Davis
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195390971
- eISBN:
- 9780199777099
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195390971.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity, Church History
The point of this book is that, despite all the changes and challenges, and despite Calvinism’s ultimate failure to hold the American consciousness, and despite an especially fervent effort to ...
More
The point of this book is that, despite all the changes and challenges, and despite Calvinism’s ultimate failure to hold the American consciousness, and despite an especially fervent effort to dismiss the Calvinist outlook from American culture by sermon (Channing, and, after him, by the new religious movements that numerically overwhelmed the old Puritan faith, such as Methodism) or by the art of letters and the novel (Sedgwick and others, yes, but also those deep within the tradition of Calvinism who brought their most anguished complaints against it to the light of day through their written work—one thinks of the Beecher children) or by the sardonic newspaper column (H. L. Mencken), the fact remained and remains that Calvinism in America has had an impact on American society and culture in every century of American life, even if at times it goes unrecognized. And behind Calvinism stands Calvin. This book examines the influence of John Calvin and his various (and, at times, competing) heirs on American life. It explores Calvin’s influence—whether direct or mediated—from the beginnings of the United States until the present day, analyzing it in relation to such areas as society (including economics, government, and democracy), theology, and letters. The essays span the history of the United States, from the arrival of Puritans in the seventeenth century up to works of fiction published in the twentieth-first century. Thus, the book is unique in terms of its examination of the breadth and depth of Calvin’s influence on American life.Less
The point of this book is that, despite all the changes and challenges, and despite Calvinism’s ultimate failure to hold the American consciousness, and despite an especially fervent effort to dismiss the Calvinist outlook from American culture by sermon (Channing, and, after him, by the new religious movements that numerically overwhelmed the old Puritan faith, such as Methodism) or by the art of letters and the novel (Sedgwick and others, yes, but also those deep within the tradition of Calvinism who brought their most anguished complaints against it to the light of day through their written work—one thinks of the Beecher children) or by the sardonic newspaper column (H. L. Mencken), the fact remained and remains that Calvinism in America has had an impact on American society and culture in every century of American life, even if at times it goes unrecognized. And behind Calvinism stands Calvin. This book examines the influence of John Calvin and his various (and, at times, competing) heirs on American life. It explores Calvin’s influence—whether direct or mediated—from the beginnings of the United States until the present day, analyzing it in relation to such areas as society (including economics, government, and democracy), theology, and letters. The essays span the history of the United States, from the arrival of Puritans in the seventeenth century up to works of fiction published in the twentieth-first century. Thus, the book is unique in terms of its examination of the breadth and depth of Calvin’s influence on American life.
Stephen D. Crocco
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195390971
- eISBN:
- 9780199777099
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195390971.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity, Church History
In 1898, Abraham Kuyper delivered his Lectures on Calvinism at Princeton Theological Seminary. A few years later, Princeton’s B. B. Warfield pared back Kuyper’s Calvinism as a positive force in the ...
More
In 1898, Abraham Kuyper delivered his Lectures on Calvinism at Princeton Theological Seminary. A few years later, Princeton’s B. B. Warfield pared back Kuyper’s Calvinism as a positive force in the broad realms of human culture by stressing Calvin’s usefulness for defending Protestant orthodoxy. Both Kuyper’s "neo-Calvinism" and Warfield’s "Westminster Confession" Calvinism found homes in American Protestantism. Later, H. Richard Niebuhr and Joseph Haroutunian claimed Calvin as a predecessor of a Protestant realism associated with neo-orthodoxy. In contrast, liberal theologian Wilhelm Pauck engaged orthodox Calvinists to portray Calvin as a key figure for an ecumenical Protestant theology that could resurrect a moribund liberal tradition. Later still, James M. Gustafson embraced Calvin as a precursor to his own post-Christian theocentric theology. This chapter charts these debates, exploring the extent to which Calvin’s writings shaped developments in American theology and to what extent his contributions have been defined by those developments.Less
In 1898, Abraham Kuyper delivered his Lectures on Calvinism at Princeton Theological Seminary. A few years later, Princeton’s B. B. Warfield pared back Kuyper’s Calvinism as a positive force in the broad realms of human culture by stressing Calvin’s usefulness for defending Protestant orthodoxy. Both Kuyper’s "neo-Calvinism" and Warfield’s "Westminster Confession" Calvinism found homes in American Protestantism. Later, H. Richard Niebuhr and Joseph Haroutunian claimed Calvin as a predecessor of a Protestant realism associated with neo-orthodoxy. In contrast, liberal theologian Wilhelm Pauck engaged orthodox Calvinists to portray Calvin as a key figure for an ecumenical Protestant theology that could resurrect a moribund liberal tradition. Later still, James M. Gustafson embraced Calvin as a precursor to his own post-Christian theocentric theology. This chapter charts these debates, exploring the extent to which Calvin’s writings shaped developments in American theology and to what extent his contributions have been defined by those developments.
Anthony B. Pinn
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195340822
- eISBN:
- 9780199932344
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340822.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology
Rejecting the assumption of theism as the African American orientation, and in response to a central question—What is the look of a nontheistic theology?—Pinn provides the first systematic African ...
More
Rejecting the assumption of theism as the African American orientation, and in response to a central question—What is the look of a nontheistic theology?—Pinn provides the first systematic African American nontheistic theology. It expands the range of theological resources to include more of the mundane materials generally overlooked in African American theology. Through an appreciation of a complex sense of community that extends beyond a simple location of the like-minded, The End of God-Talk offers a new center for theological inquiry and ties this to a sense of the human much more scientifically grounded than the imago Dei ideas that dominate African American theistic theologies. Pinn explores the importance of symmetry as a new marker of meaning, one that rejects traditional notions of salvation—even those posed by the more materially grounded liberation theologies. Furthermore, Pinn proposes a turn to Thoreau, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and Alice Walker as a way of forging a sense of ethical conduct consistent with African American nontheistic humanism. The book ends with an exploration of the religious significance of ordinary spaces and activities as the locations for humanist theological engagement. Through a turn to embodied human life as the proper arena for and content of theologizing, Pinn's book opens a new theological path with important implications for ongoing work in African American religious studies.Less
Rejecting the assumption of theism as the African American orientation, and in response to a central question—What is the look of a nontheistic theology?—Pinn provides the first systematic African American nontheistic theology. It expands the range of theological resources to include more of the mundane materials generally overlooked in African American theology. Through an appreciation of a complex sense of community that extends beyond a simple location of the like-minded, The End of God-Talk offers a new center for theological inquiry and ties this to a sense of the human much more scientifically grounded than the imago Dei ideas that dominate African American theistic theologies. Pinn explores the importance of symmetry as a new marker of meaning, one that rejects traditional notions of salvation—even those posed by the more materially grounded liberation theologies. Furthermore, Pinn proposes a turn to Thoreau, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and Alice Walker as a way of forging a sense of ethical conduct consistent with African American nontheistic humanism. The book ends with an exploration of the religious significance of ordinary spaces and activities as the locations for humanist theological engagement. Through a turn to embodied human life as the proper arena for and content of theologizing, Pinn's book opens a new theological path with important implications for ongoing work in African American religious studies.
Gerald R. McDermott (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195373431
- eISBN:
- 9780199871681
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373431.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
Many books have been published on Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), widely regarded as the greatest American theologian. Some are by experts who typically write only for fellow specialists. Others are by ...
More
Many books have been published on Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), widely regarded as the greatest American theologian. Some are by experts who typically write only for fellow specialists. Others are by popular authors who are unaware of recent scholarly discoveries. This book contains chapters based on the latest research on the subject of Edwards and the result is an introduction to North America’s most important religious mind on subjects he considered vitally important: revival, Bible, typology, aesthetics, literature, preaching, philosophy, and world religions. It also includes a survey of his life and career, extended reflections on his relevance to today’s church and world, and much more.Less
Many books have been published on Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), widely regarded as the greatest American theologian. Some are by experts who typically write only for fellow specialists. Others are by popular authors who are unaware of recent scholarly discoveries. This book contains chapters based on the latest research on the subject of Edwards and the result is an introduction to North America’s most important religious mind on subjects he considered vitally important: revival, Bible, typology, aesthetics, literature, preaching, philosophy, and world religions. It also includes a survey of his life and career, extended reflections on his relevance to today’s church and world, and much more.
Gerald R. McDermott
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195373431
- eISBN:
- 9780199871681
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373431.003.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
This introductory chapter descibes how the editor of this book came to be interested in the subject of Jonathan Edwards. It explains the interest Edwards has held for so many theologians and talks ...
More
This introductory chapter descibes how the editor of this book came to be interested in the subject of Jonathan Edwards. It explains the interest Edwards has held for so many theologians and talks about how admiration of Edwards is not universal in the theological world. There is much debate. The chapter goes on to mention the book's unique approach to discussing Edwards, with contributions from both Edwards scholars and non-Edwards scholars, and finally outlines the chapters that follow.Less
This introductory chapter descibes how the editor of this book came to be interested in the subject of Jonathan Edwards. It explains the interest Edwards has held for so many theologians and talks about how admiration of Edwards is not universal in the theological world. There is much debate. The chapter goes on to mention the book's unique approach to discussing Edwards, with contributions from both Edwards scholars and non-Edwards scholars, and finally outlines the chapters that follow.
Mark Noll
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231140201
- eISBN:
- 9780231530781
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231140201.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
This chapter surveys the history of American theology. The activity of religious believers has been constantly transformative within American culture and, since the late nineteenth century, for the ...
More
This chapter surveys the history of American theology. The activity of religious believers has been constantly transformative within American culture and, since the late nineteenth century, for the world. Yet the impact of what Americans have thought about God has been less obvious and less extensive. Nonetheless, the history of American theology shows how both inherited traditions and popular innovations have interacted with pressing circumstances to produce theological reflection of surprising breadth and unexpected depth. This chapter discusses the characteristics of American religious experience during the colonial period; theology in the new United States during the period 1776–1865; shifts in the theological landscape between 1865 and 1945; and changes in American theology in the recent past. It also provides examples of the folk origins of high theology and the theological base of popular religious movements in America.Less
This chapter surveys the history of American theology. The activity of religious believers has been constantly transformative within American culture and, since the late nineteenth century, for the world. Yet the impact of what Americans have thought about God has been less obvious and less extensive. Nonetheless, the history of American theology shows how both inherited traditions and popular innovations have interacted with pressing circumstances to produce theological reflection of surprising breadth and unexpected depth. This chapter discusses the characteristics of American religious experience during the colonial period; theology in the new United States during the period 1776–1865; shifts in the theological landscape between 1865 and 1945; and changes in American theology in the recent past. It also provides examples of the folk origins of high theology and the theological base of popular religious movements in America.
Kevin M. Watson
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- March 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780190844516
- eISBN:
- 9780190844547
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190844516.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
This chapter argues that holiness was an essential mark of American Methodist theology from the beginnings of American Methodism through the first half of the nineteenth century. The chapter ...
More
This chapter argues that holiness was an essential mark of American Methodist theology from the beginnings of American Methodism through the first half of the nineteenth century. The chapter summarizes the initial commitment to holiness in John Wesley and early British Methodism. The commitment to holiness and entire sanctification of early American Methodism is then discussed. The chapter points to the importance of holiness as marking a theological tradition that was consistent across varieties of American Methodism as well as in popular Methodist experience. The chapter concludes by pointing to signs of coming tension, especially the rise of Phoebe Palmer and the Holiness Movement, the division that created the Wesleyan Methodist Connection, and the croakers, who initially complained about changes and compromise they saw in Methodism. The core argument of the chapter is that from 1784 through the 1840s there was a coherent theological tradition in American Methodism.Less
This chapter argues that holiness was an essential mark of American Methodist theology from the beginnings of American Methodism through the first half of the nineteenth century. The chapter summarizes the initial commitment to holiness in John Wesley and early British Methodism. The commitment to holiness and entire sanctification of early American Methodism is then discussed. The chapter points to the importance of holiness as marking a theological tradition that was consistent across varieties of American Methodism as well as in popular Methodist experience. The chapter concludes by pointing to signs of coming tension, especially the rise of Phoebe Palmer and the Holiness Movement, the division that created the Wesleyan Methodist Connection, and the croakers, who initially complained about changes and compromise they saw in Methodism. The core argument of the chapter is that from 1784 through the 1840s there was a coherent theological tradition in American Methodism.
Anne M. Blankenship
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781469629209
- eISBN:
- 9781469629223
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469629209.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies
Anne M. Blankenship's study of Christianity in the infamous camps where Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II yields insights both far-reaching and timely. While most Japanese ...
More
Anne M. Blankenship's study of Christianity in the infamous camps where Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II yields insights both far-reaching and timely. While most Japanese Americans maintained their traditional identities as Buddhists, a sizeable minority identified as Christian, and a number of church leaders sought to minister to them in the camps. Blankenship shows how church leaders were forced to assess the ethics and pragmatism of fighting against or acquiescing to what they clearly perceived, even in the midst of a national crisis, as an unjust social system. These religious activists became acutely aware of the impact of government, as well as church, policies that targeted ordinary Americans of diverse ethnicities.
Going through the doors of the camp churches and delving deeply into the religious experiences of the incarcerated and the faithful who aided them, Blankenship argues that the incarceration period introduced new social and legal approaches for Christians of all stripes to challenge the constitutionality of government policies on race and civil rights. She also shows how the camp experience nourished the roots of an Asian American liberation theology that sprouted in the sixties and seventies.Less
Anne M. Blankenship's study of Christianity in the infamous camps where Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II yields insights both far-reaching and timely. While most Japanese Americans maintained their traditional identities as Buddhists, a sizeable minority identified as Christian, and a number of church leaders sought to minister to them in the camps. Blankenship shows how church leaders were forced to assess the ethics and pragmatism of fighting against or acquiescing to what they clearly perceived, even in the midst of a national crisis, as an unjust social system. These religious activists became acutely aware of the impact of government, as well as church, policies that targeted ordinary Americans of diverse ethnicities.
Going through the doors of the camp churches and delving deeply into the religious experiences of the incarcerated and the faithful who aided them, Blankenship argues that the incarceration period introduced new social and legal approaches for Christians of all stripes to challenge the constitutionality of government policies on race and civil rights. She also shows how the camp experience nourished the roots of an Asian American liberation theology that sprouted in the sixties and seventies.
Annette G. Aubert
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- September 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199915323
- eISBN:
- 9780199345540
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199915323.003.0009
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Literature
The concluding chapter summarizes the main findings and reasserts the primary thesis regarding the essential need to consider the influences of Friedrich Schleiermacher, Ernst Hengstenberg, and the ...
More
The concluding chapter summarizes the main findings and reasserts the primary thesis regarding the essential need to consider the influences of Friedrich Schleiermacher, Ernst Hengstenberg, and the mediating theologians on nineteenth-century Reformed theology in the United States. It briefly reviews the evidence indicating that American scholars were simultaneously receptive, inspired, and reactionary in their responses to German theology. The chapter also reaffirms the primary assertion that a transatlantic approach is required to bring into sharper focus the theological ideas and contexts of the Reformed theologies of Emanuel Gerhart and Charles Hodge, and that it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of European intellectual ideas to fully comprehend Reformed theology in America.Less
The concluding chapter summarizes the main findings and reasserts the primary thesis regarding the essential need to consider the influences of Friedrich Schleiermacher, Ernst Hengstenberg, and the mediating theologians on nineteenth-century Reformed theology in the United States. It briefly reviews the evidence indicating that American scholars were simultaneously receptive, inspired, and reactionary in their responses to German theology. The chapter also reaffirms the primary assertion that a transatlantic approach is required to bring into sharper focus the theological ideas and contexts of the Reformed theologies of Emanuel Gerhart and Charles Hodge, and that it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of European intellectual ideas to fully comprehend Reformed theology in America.
Tat-siong Benny Liew
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- November 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780824831622
- eISBN:
- 9780824869168
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Hawai'i Press
- DOI:
- 10.21313/hawaii/9780824831622.003.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies
This chapter discusses the nature and construction of Asian American theology—what is Asian American about that theology, and what makes this construction theological. In addition to dealing with the ...
More
This chapter discusses the nature and construction of Asian American theology—what is Asian American about that theology, and what makes this construction theological. In addition to dealing with the “who” and/or “what,” the chapter suggests how one can narrate Asian American biblical hermeneutics into legitimacy not through a narrative of identity or authenticity but through repeated references to existing biblical scholarship by Asian American scholars. However, no single strategy will be sufficient for all situations, since they do not remain static. Asian American identities and Asian American biblical hermeneutics are both processes of “becoming-being,” “being-becoming,” or in a word, performance. As performance, these processes get remade simultaneously, responding creatively to contingent and/or changing situations.Less
This chapter discusses the nature and construction of Asian American theology—what is Asian American about that theology, and what makes this construction theological. In addition to dealing with the “who” and/or “what,” the chapter suggests how one can narrate Asian American biblical hermeneutics into legitimacy not through a narrative of identity or authenticity but through repeated references to existing biblical scholarship by Asian American scholars. However, no single strategy will be sufficient for all situations, since they do not remain static. Asian American identities and Asian American biblical hermeneutics are both processes of “becoming-being,” “being-becoming,” or in a word, performance. As performance, these processes get remade simultaneously, responding creatively to contingent and/or changing situations.
Anne M. Blankenship
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781469629209
- eISBN:
- 9781469629223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469629209.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies
Incarcerated Christians frequently thanked God for giving them the strength to endure the incarceration and developed a variety of faith communities to provide additional support. The focus of ...
More
Incarcerated Christians frequently thanked God for giving them the strength to endure the incarceration and developed a variety of faith communities to provide additional support. The focus of Chapter Four turns away from church leaders to examine how lay (non-ordained) Christians experienced camp life. Buddhists joined Protestants and Catholics to organize interfaith memorial services for Nikkei soldiers killed in action, while pacifists and others resisted the military draft. This chapter expands the book’s focus to highlight Christian youth culture at a camp in Arizona and the hardships at Tule Lake, where incarcerees attacked Japanese Christians for cooperating with camp officials. The roots of Asian American theologies began growing in the camps in response to this rejection and suffering.Less
Incarcerated Christians frequently thanked God for giving them the strength to endure the incarceration and developed a variety of faith communities to provide additional support. The focus of Chapter Four turns away from church leaders to examine how lay (non-ordained) Christians experienced camp life. Buddhists joined Protestants and Catholics to organize interfaith memorial services for Nikkei soldiers killed in action, while pacifists and others resisted the military draft. This chapter expands the book’s focus to highlight Christian youth culture at a camp in Arizona and the hardships at Tule Lake, where incarcerees attacked Japanese Christians for cooperating with camp officials. The roots of Asian American theologies began growing in the camps in response to this rejection and suffering.
Helene Slessarev-Jamir
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- March 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780814741238
- eISBN:
- 9780814708705
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- NYU Press
- DOI:
- 10.18574/nyu/9780814741238.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
This chapter discusses the distinctive legacy of Catholic social action and the entrance of Latin American liberative models of praxis into community organizing in the late 1970s. By the 1970s, ...
More
This chapter discusses the distinctive legacy of Catholic social action and the entrance of Latin American liberative models of praxis into community organizing in the late 1970s. By the 1970s, organizers of congregational-based communities were constructing new paradigms, drawing from both the civil rights movement's legacy and Catholic social justice traditions, especially the emergence of Latin American liberation theology. Congregational-based organizing is now grounded in the use of popular education models, which are particularly appropriate to the cultural predispositions of borderlands people. Indeed, for people living in marginalized communities who become leaders in congregational organizing, the use of popular education leads them to an awareness of the root cause of the ills affecting their communities, of God's commitment to justice, and of their own capacity to transform their collective well-being.Less
This chapter discusses the distinctive legacy of Catholic social action and the entrance of Latin American liberative models of praxis into community organizing in the late 1970s. By the 1970s, organizers of congregational-based communities were constructing new paradigms, drawing from both the civil rights movement's legacy and Catholic social justice traditions, especially the emergence of Latin American liberation theology. Congregational-based organizing is now grounded in the use of popular education models, which are particularly appropriate to the cultural predispositions of borderlands people. Indeed, for people living in marginalized communities who become leaders in congregational organizing, the use of popular education leads them to an awareness of the root cause of the ills affecting their communities, of God's commitment to justice, and of their own capacity to transform their collective well-being.
Anne M. Blankenship
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781469629209
- eISBN:
- 9781469629223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469629209.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies
As Japanese Christians left the camps, white church leaders instructed them to join established churches and prevented them from re-forming their prewar ethnic congregations. This final chapter ...
More
As Japanese Christians left the camps, white church leaders instructed them to join established churches and prevented them from re-forming their prewar ethnic congregations. This final chapter analyzes attempts to mend the nation’s racial divisions by ending the segregation of white and Japanese Protestant worship. Efforts to drastically restructure the racial divisions within American Protestantism incited extensive debate about the role of racial minorities within the church. Like the decision to form ecumenical churches, leaders thought the long term benefits of fewer divisions in the church outweighed the temporary challenges to the subjects of their experiment. Most Japanese Americans formed ethnic fellowship groups or left the church rather than join predominantly white churches. The results of this experiment revealed the limited extent to which American Christians were interested in, capable of, and willing to reform definitions of race in order to unite the Christian church.Less
As Japanese Christians left the camps, white church leaders instructed them to join established churches and prevented them from re-forming their prewar ethnic congregations. This final chapter analyzes attempts to mend the nation’s racial divisions by ending the segregation of white and Japanese Protestant worship. Efforts to drastically restructure the racial divisions within American Protestantism incited extensive debate about the role of racial minorities within the church. Like the decision to form ecumenical churches, leaders thought the long term benefits of fewer divisions in the church outweighed the temporary challenges to the subjects of their experiment. Most Japanese Americans formed ethnic fellowship groups or left the church rather than join predominantly white churches. The results of this experiment revealed the limited extent to which American Christians were interested in, capable of, and willing to reform definitions of race in order to unite the Christian church.