John Stachel
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264249
- eISBN:
- 9780191734045
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264249.003.0015
- Subject:
- History, Cultural History
This lecture discusses the nature of creativity; creativity is defined in terms of the interaction between the individual and the field of experts in a certain domain. This interaction eventually ...
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This lecture discusses the nature of creativity; creativity is defined in terms of the interaction between the individual and the field of experts in a certain domain. This interaction eventually determines the form and content of the results that are admitted into the domain. The lecture considers the nature of his cognitive processes and presents evidence that supports the crucial role played by social relations in shaping the domain-specific cognitive apparatus. It also looks at the myth of Einstein as magus and some of the dynamical polarities in his personality that allowed him to contribute to changes in theoretical physics.Less
This lecture discusses the nature of creativity; creativity is defined in terms of the interaction between the individual and the field of experts in a certain domain. This interaction eventually determines the form and content of the results that are admitted into the domain. The lecture considers the nature of his cognitive processes and presents evidence that supports the crucial role played by social relations in shaping the domain-specific cognitive apparatus. It also looks at the myth of Einstein as magus and some of the dynamical polarities in his personality that allowed him to contribute to changes in theoretical physics.
Harvey R. Brown
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199275830
- eISBN:
- 9780191603914
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199275831.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the ...
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This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the Lorentz transformations. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Einstein's inertial frames are the same as Newton's.Less
This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the Lorentz transformations. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Einstein's inertial frames are the same as Newton's.
Louis A. Girifalco
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199228966
- eISBN:
- 9780191711183
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228966.003.0011
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
Albert Einstein is the only scientist who's genius was comparable to that of Newton's. Their personalities and lifestyles were completely different, but they were both consumed by the desire to know. ...
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Albert Einstein is the only scientist who's genius was comparable to that of Newton's. Their personalities and lifestyles were completely different, but they were both consumed by the desire to know. In 1905, the miracle year, Einstein gave quantum mechanics its true beginning by working out the theory of photoelectricity, created a new statistical mechanics by studying Brownian motion, gave a fully formed theory of special relativity, and derived his famous mass-energy equation. This monumental accomplishment was matched only by Newton's work during the plague years. A decade later, Einstein single handedly developed general relativity, the deepest and most beautiful of all scientific theories.Less
Albert Einstein is the only scientist who's genius was comparable to that of Newton's. Their personalities and lifestyles were completely different, but they were both consumed by the desire to know. In 1905, the miracle year, Einstein gave quantum mechanics its true beginning by working out the theory of photoelectricity, created a new statistical mechanics by studying Brownian motion, gave a fully formed theory of special relativity, and derived his famous mass-energy equation. This monumental accomplishment was matched only by Newton's work during the plague years. A decade later, Einstein single handedly developed general relativity, the deepest and most beautiful of all scientific theories.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691175812
- eISBN:
- 9781400865765
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691175812.003.0002
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and ...
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This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and mathematical requirements laid down at the outset. It first considers Einstein's work on gravitation in Prague before analyzing three documents that played a significant role in his search for a theory of general relativity: the Zurich Notebook, the Einstein–Grossmann Entwurf paper, and the Einstein–Besso manuscript. It then looks at Einstein's completion of his general theory of relativity in Berlin in November 1915, along with his development of a new theory of gravitation within the framework of the special theory of relativity. It also examines the formulation of the basic idea that Einstein termed the “equivalence principle,” his Entwurf theory vs. David Hilbert's theory, and the 1916 manuscript of Einstein's work on the general theory of relativity.Less
This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and mathematical requirements laid down at the outset. It first considers Einstein's work on gravitation in Prague before analyzing three documents that played a significant role in his search for a theory of general relativity: the Zurich Notebook, the Einstein–Grossmann Entwurf paper, and the Einstein–Besso manuscript. It then looks at Einstein's completion of his general theory of relativity in Berlin in November 1915, along with his development of a new theory of gravitation within the framework of the special theory of relativity. It also examines the formulation of the basic idea that Einstein termed the “equivalence principle,” his Entwurf theory vs. David Hilbert's theory, and the 1916 manuscript of Einstein's work on the general theory of relativity.
Julian Barbour
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263464
- eISBN:
- 9780191734748
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263464.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
This chapter charts the complicated legacy of Mach's critique of absolute space and time. In 1902, Poincaré achieved a clear formulation of what a truly Machian mechanics should accomplish: it should ...
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This chapter charts the complicated legacy of Mach's critique of absolute space and time. In 1902, Poincaré achieved a clear formulation of what a truly Machian mechanics should accomplish: it should permit a unique prediction of future motion on the basis of just the relative separations of bodies, and these separations' rates of change. However, this work made no impact on Einstein, despite his admiration for Mach. The discussion explains how several independent ideas that dominated Einstein's thinking about space, time and matter led him to a quite different interpretation (or misinterpretation) of Mach. This chapter also argues that, despite the misinterpretation, general relativity is perfectly Machian (in a sense that is the analogue for field theories of Poincaré's criterion), and that this shows general relativity to be ‘timeless’ in a certain sense, which is suggestive of quantum gravity.Less
This chapter charts the complicated legacy of Mach's critique of absolute space and time. In 1902, Poincaré achieved a clear formulation of what a truly Machian mechanics should accomplish: it should permit a unique prediction of future motion on the basis of just the relative separations of bodies, and these separations' rates of change. However, this work made no impact on Einstein, despite his admiration for Mach. The discussion explains how several independent ideas that dominated Einstein's thinking about space, time and matter led him to a quite different interpretation (or misinterpretation) of Mach. This chapter also argues that, despite the misinterpretation, general relativity is perfectly Machian (in a sense that is the analogue for field theories of Poincaré's criterion), and that this shows general relativity to be ‘timeless’ in a certain sense, which is suggestive of quantum gravity.
Thomas Ryckman
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195177176
- eISBN:
- 9780199835324
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195177177.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
Hermann Weyl and Hans Reichenbach stood on opposite sides in a debate that ostensibly turned on whether rigid rods and ideal clocks do or should play an epistemologically fundamental role in GTR. ...
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Hermann Weyl and Hans Reichenbach stood on opposite sides in a debate that ostensibly turned on whether rigid rods and ideal clocks do or should play an epistemologically fundamental role in GTR. Weyl’s unification of gravitation and electromagnetism on the basis of an epistemological principle of “relativity of magnitude” is the first explicit example of a gauge theory. The Einstein-Pauli “prehistory” objection is considered. It is shown how Reichenbach’s “constructive axiomatization” of GTR based on rigid rods and clocks is expressly targeted on Weyl’s theory. Einstein’s epistemological objections to Weyl are belied by his own practice in pursuit of a unified field theory.Less
Hermann Weyl and Hans Reichenbach stood on opposite sides in a debate that ostensibly turned on whether rigid rods and ideal clocks do or should play an epistemologically fundamental role in GTR. Weyl’s unification of gravitation and electromagnetism on the basis of an epistemological principle of “relativity of magnitude” is the first explicit example of a gauge theory. The Einstein-Pauli “prehistory” objection is considered. It is shown how Reichenbach’s “constructive axiomatization” of GTR based on rigid rods and clocks is expressly targeted on Weyl’s theory. Einstein’s epistemological objections to Weyl are belied by his own practice in pursuit of a unified field theory.
Thomas Ryckman
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195177176
- eISBN:
- 9780199835324
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195177177.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
A tension within Kant’s Transcendental Analytic, regarding the combination of the “active” faculty of understanding with the “passive” faculty of sensibility, underlies the distinct appraisals in ...
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A tension within Kant’s Transcendental Analytic, regarding the combination of the “active” faculty of understanding with the “passive” faculty of sensibility, underlies the distinct appraisals in 1920 by Hans Reichenbach and Ernst Cassirer of constitutive but “relativized” a priori principles in the GTR. Reichenbach’s “principles of coordination” presuppose Schlick’s conception of cognition as a coordination of formal concepts to objects of perceptual experience, and are shown to be consonant only with the commitments of scientific realism. Cassirer’s rejection of the “active”/“passive” dichotomy promoted his conception of general covariance as a high level principle of objectivity, much in accord with Einstein’s own later views, as recently articulated in the literature on the “Hole Argument.” In particular, the principle of general covariance is shown to place significant constraints on field theories, a point noted by David Hilbert and implicit in the work of Emmy Noether.Less
A tension within Kant’s Transcendental Analytic, regarding the combination of the “active” faculty of understanding with the “passive” faculty of sensibility, underlies the distinct appraisals in 1920 by Hans Reichenbach and Ernst Cassirer of constitutive but “relativized” a priori principles in the GTR. Reichenbach’s “principles of coordination” presuppose Schlick’s conception of cognition as a coordination of formal concepts to objects of perceptual experience, and are shown to be consonant only with the commitments of scientific realism. Cassirer’s rejection of the “active”/“passive” dichotomy promoted his conception of general covariance as a high level principle of objectivity, much in accord with Einstein’s own later views, as recently articulated in the literature on the “Hole Argument.” In particular, the principle of general covariance is shown to place significant constraints on field theories, a point noted by David Hilbert and implicit in the work of Emmy Noether.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691175812
- eISBN:
- 9781400865765
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691175812.003.0003
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory ...
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This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory of relativity, taking into account Einstein's fundamental considerations on the postulate of relativity, and more specifically why he went beyond the special theory of relativity. It then considers the spacetime continuum, explaining the role of coordinates in the new theory of gravitation. It also describes tensors of the second and higher ranks, multiplication of tensors, the equation of the geodetic line, the formation of tensors by differentiation, equations of motion of a material point in the gravitational field, the general form of the field equations of gravitation, and the laws of conservation in the general case. Finally, the behavior of rods and clocks in the static gravitational field is examined.Less
This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory of relativity, taking into account Einstein's fundamental considerations on the postulate of relativity, and more specifically why he went beyond the special theory of relativity. It then considers the spacetime continuum, explaining the role of coordinates in the new theory of gravitation. It also describes tensors of the second and higher ranks, multiplication of tensors, the equation of the geodetic line, the formation of tensors by differentiation, equations of motion of a material point in the gravitational field, the general form of the field equations of gravitation, and the laws of conservation in the general case. Finally, the behavior of rods and clocks in the static gravitational field is examined.
Thomas Ryckman
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195177176
- eISBN:
- 9780199835324
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195177177.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
Mortiz Schlick’s article of this title was highly influential in convincing several generations of philosophers that GTR outrightly falsified any variety of Kantian epistemology. In fact, the ...
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Mortiz Schlick’s article of this title was highly influential in convincing several generations of philosophers that GTR outrightly falsified any variety of Kantian epistemology. In fact, the empiricism Schlick countered to transcendental idealism had not yet appeared in his previous writings but was quickly cobbled together from disparate elements: Henri Poincaré’s geometric conventionalism and selective readings of Einstein’s “Geometry and Experience” and earlier texts of Hermann von Helmholtz. The result of Schlick’s improvisation is that the empiricist interpretation of the spacetime metric rests on conventions regarding the behavior of rigid rods and clocks.Less
Mortiz Schlick’s article of this title was highly influential in convincing several generations of philosophers that GTR outrightly falsified any variety of Kantian epistemology. In fact, the empiricism Schlick countered to transcendental idealism had not yet appeared in his previous writings but was quickly cobbled together from disparate elements: Henri Poincaré’s geometric conventionalism and selective readings of Einstein’s “Geometry and Experience” and earlier texts of Hermann von Helmholtz. The result of Schlick’s improvisation is that the empiricist interpretation of the spacetime metric rests on conventions regarding the behavior of rigid rods and clocks.
Roberto Torretti
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263464
- eISBN:
- 9780191734748
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263464.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
This chapter devotes equal attention to special relativity and general relativity. It first describes the history of the analysis of distant simultaneity, up to and including Einstein's procedure in ...
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This chapter devotes equal attention to special relativity and general relativity. It first describes the history of the analysis of distant simultaneity, up to and including Einstein's procedure in his revolutionary 1905 paper which introduced special relativity. In particular, the discussion relates Einstein's procedure to the ensuing philosophical debate about whether distant simultaneity is a matter of convention. As to general relativity, the discussion gives a brief sketch of Einstein's path towards his discovery of general relativity. Thereafter, it focuses on the topological structure of time or, more precisely, of timelike lines (worldlines) in spacetime. It discusses the closed timelike lines first found in an exact solution of general relativity by Godel; and the open timelike geodesics that get arbitrarily close to the initial singularity (Big Bang) in a Friedmann solution.Less
This chapter devotes equal attention to special relativity and general relativity. It first describes the history of the analysis of distant simultaneity, up to and including Einstein's procedure in his revolutionary 1905 paper which introduced special relativity. In particular, the discussion relates Einstein's procedure to the ensuing philosophical debate about whether distant simultaneity is a matter of convention. As to general relativity, the discussion gives a brief sketch of Einstein's path towards his discovery of general relativity. Thereafter, it focuses on the topological structure of time or, more precisely, of timelike lines (worldlines) in spacetime. It discusses the closed timelike lines first found in an exact solution of general relativity by Godel; and the open timelike geodesics that get arbitrarily close to the initial singularity (Big Bang) in a Friedmann solution.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0010
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter addresses the philosophical debate surrounding general relativity in its formative period, from Einstein's own writings on methodological and epistemological aspects of the theory to the ...
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This chapter addresses the philosophical debate surrounding general relativity in its formative period, from Einstein's own writings on methodological and epistemological aspects of the theory to the first reactions by philosophers such as Moritz Schlick, Ernst Cassirer, and Hans Reichenbach. The focus is on the philosophical investigations clarifying and reinterpreting the conceptual foundations of general relativity. General relativity emerged from Einstein's concerns for the foundations of physics. His early readings of philosophers had made him aware of the delicate relation between the fundamental concepts of space and time and experience. In creating special relativity, David Hume's empiricism and Poincaré's conventionalism had been helpful because they encouraged Einstein to ascribe new notions of space and time to coordinates that in Hendrik Lorentz's electrodynamics had no direct physical meaning.Less
This chapter addresses the philosophical debate surrounding general relativity in its formative period, from Einstein's own writings on methodological and epistemological aspects of the theory to the first reactions by philosophers such as Moritz Schlick, Ernst Cassirer, and Hans Reichenbach. The focus is on the philosophical investigations clarifying and reinterpreting the conceptual foundations of general relativity. General relativity emerged from Einstein's concerns for the foundations of physics. His early readings of philosophers had made him aware of the delicate relation between the fundamental concepts of space and time and experience. In creating special relativity, David Hume's empiricism and Poincaré's conventionalism had been helpful because they encouraged Einstein to ascribe new notions of space and time to coordinates that in Hendrik Lorentz's electrodynamics had no direct physical meaning.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0007
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter deals with the early exploration of observational and experimental consequences of general relativity. It explores Erwin Freundlich's failed attempts to verify gravitational light ...
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This chapter deals with the early exploration of observational and experimental consequences of general relativity. It explores Erwin Freundlich's failed attempts to verify gravitational light bending and the redshift. The long collaboration between Einstein and Freundlich suffered a setback caused by personal tensions and disagreements around the end of 1921. Nevertheless, they continued to collaborate until both of them had to leave Germany when the Nazis came to power. The chapter also focuses on the triumphal confirmation of light bending during a solar eclipse by Arthur Eddington's expedition. Finally, this chapter considers the Hubble's discovery of the redshift of distant galaxies, which established the notion of an expanding universe.Less
This chapter deals with the early exploration of observational and experimental consequences of general relativity. It explores Erwin Freundlich's failed attempts to verify gravitational light bending and the redshift. The long collaboration between Einstein and Freundlich suffered a setback caused by personal tensions and disagreements around the end of 1921. Nevertheless, they continued to collaborate until both of them had to leave Germany when the Nazis came to power. The chapter also focuses on the triumphal confirmation of light bending during a solar eclipse by Arthur Eddington's expedition. Finally, this chapter considers the Hubble's discovery of the redshift of distant galaxies, which established the notion of an expanding universe.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0011
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter addresses the question of why general relativity was perceived to be an incomplete theory by many contemporary scientists, including Einstein himself. In the formative years, general ...
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This chapter addresses the question of why general relativity was perceived to be an incomplete theory by many contemporary scientists, including Einstein himself. In the formative years, general relativity was often seen as a partial or incomplete theory to be generalized, encompassed, or superseded by an overarching unifying theory that would also explain the constitution of matter, typically by including gravity and electromagnetism. This chapter also discusses Einstein's essay, entitled “Generalization of Gravitation Theory,” which he added to the third edition of The Meaning of Relativity. This essay reflects Einstein's struggle in his search for a unified field theory, which in the last ten years of his life was based on the notion of a non-symmetric metric.Less
This chapter addresses the question of why general relativity was perceived to be an incomplete theory by many contemporary scientists, including Einstein himself. In the formative years, general relativity was often seen as a partial or incomplete theory to be generalized, encompassed, or superseded by an overarching unifying theory that would also explain the constitution of matter, typically by including gravity and electromagnetism. This chapter also discusses Einstein's essay, entitled “Generalization of Gravitation Theory,” which he added to the third edition of The Meaning of Relativity. This essay reflects Einstein's struggle in his search for a unified field theory, which in the last ten years of his life was based on the notion of a non-symmetric metric.
Thomas Ryckman
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195177176
- eISBN:
- 9780199835324
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195177177.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
It is shown how Eddington’s 1921 generalization of Weyl’s theory of gravitation and electromagnetism stemmed from similar transcendental idealist epistemological concerns. While Eddington’s affine ...
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It is shown how Eddington’s 1921 generalization of Weyl’s theory of gravitation and electromagnetism stemmed from similar transcendental idealist epistemological concerns. While Eddington’s affine field theory served as a template for numerous attempts within Einstein’s own unified field theory program, Eddington’s understanding of a geometrized physics remained epistemological in origin and motivation, seeking to provide a graphical representation of the most general conditions of possible experience of a world constructed from the point of view of “no one in particular.” This represents Eddington’s belief that local symmetries have a particularly important constitutive role in fundamental physical theory.Less
It is shown how Eddington’s 1921 generalization of Weyl’s theory of gravitation and electromagnetism stemmed from similar transcendental idealist epistemological concerns. While Eddington’s affine field theory served as a template for numerous attempts within Einstein’s own unified field theory program, Eddington’s understanding of a geometrized physics remained epistemological in origin and motivation, seeking to provide a graphical representation of the most general conditions of possible experience of a world constructed from the point of view of “no one in particular.” This represents Eddington’s belief that local symmetries have a particularly important constitutive role in fundamental physical theory.
Gary E. Bowman
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199228928
- eISBN:
- 9780191711206
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228928.003.0003
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
This chapter first discusses statistical techniques and concepts — including probability, probability distribution, average and expectation value, and uncertainty — that are relevant to quantum ...
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This chapter first discusses statistical techniques and concepts — including probability, probability distribution, average and expectation value, and uncertainty — that are relevant to quantum mechanics. The physical interpretation of probability in quantum mechanics is then discussed. It is argued that by adopting the statistical interpretation, one can think clearly about quantum mechanics without committing to any of the various physical interpretations, and without tackling the conceptual hurdles that they present. The history and substance of interpretational issues in quantum mechanics is then briefly discussed, the point being to introduce these profound, unresolved questions without taking sides in ongoing scientific debates. The chapter closes with a personal reflection on Albert Einstein, the most revered and fascinating figure in physics, and the one most famously at odds with the conventional interpretation of quantum mechanics.Less
This chapter first discusses statistical techniques and concepts — including probability, probability distribution, average and expectation value, and uncertainty — that are relevant to quantum mechanics. The physical interpretation of probability in quantum mechanics is then discussed. It is argued that by adopting the statistical interpretation, one can think clearly about quantum mechanics without committing to any of the various physical interpretations, and without tackling the conceptual hurdles that they present. The history and substance of interpretational issues in quantum mechanics is then briefly discussed, the point being to introduce these profound, unresolved questions without taking sides in ongoing scientific debates. The chapter closes with a personal reflection on Albert Einstein, the most revered and fascinating figure in physics, and the one most famously at odds with the conventional interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0012
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter discusses the emergence of a tradition of writing textbooks on relativity and of teaching the subject. Around 1920, in addition to Einstein's books and articles, a series of influential ...
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This chapter discusses the emergence of a tradition of writing textbooks on relativity and of teaching the subject. Around 1920, in addition to Einstein's books and articles, a series of influential monographs and textbooks appeared, including those of Hermann Weyl, Wolfgang Pauli, Max Born, Max von Laue, and Arthur Eddington. The chapter compares these different presentations and analyzes their influence on the later development of the theory. Alongside these monographs, which advanced the progress of scholarship in this new and expanding field, there was also an extensive anti-relativity literature. This literature was part of the formative years and it also reflects on the broader social dynamics of the reception of the theory.Less
This chapter discusses the emergence of a tradition of writing textbooks on relativity and of teaching the subject. Around 1920, in addition to Einstein's books and articles, a series of influential monographs and textbooks appeared, including those of Hermann Weyl, Wolfgang Pauli, Max Born, Max von Laue, and Arthur Eddington. The chapter compares these different presentations and analyzes their influence on the later development of the theory. Alongside these monographs, which advanced the progress of scholarship in this new and expanding field, there was also an extensive anti-relativity literature. This literature was part of the formative years and it also reflects on the broader social dynamics of the reception of the theory.
Thomas Ryckman
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195177176
- eISBN:
- 9780199835324
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195177177.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
The general theory of relativity (1915) was also a defining event for 20th century philosophy of science. During the decisive first ten years of the theory’s existence, two main tendencies dominated ...
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The general theory of relativity (1915) was also a defining event for 20th century philosophy of science. During the decisive first ten years of the theory’s existence, two main tendencies dominated its philosophical reception. It is argued that the path actually taken, which became logical empiricist philosophy of science, greatly contributed to the current impasse over scientific realism. On the other hand, new possibilities are opened in revisiting and reviving the spirit of a more sophisticated tendency, here broadly termed ‘transcendental idealism,’ a cluster of viewpoints principally associated with Ernst Cassirer, Hermann Weyl, and Arthur Eddington. In particular, Weyl’s reformulation of gravitational and electromagnetic theory within the framework of a “pure infinitesimal geometry” under the explicit inspiration of Edmund Husserl’s transcendental-phenomenological idealism is traced in detail and further articulated. It is further argued that Einstein, though initially paying lip service to the emerging philosophy of logical empiricism, ended up siding de facto with the broad contours of the transcendental idealist tendency, which is also a significant progenitor of the contemporary point of view misleadingly designated “structural realism”.Less
The general theory of relativity (1915) was also a defining event for 20th century philosophy of science. During the decisive first ten years of the theory’s existence, two main tendencies dominated its philosophical reception. It is argued that the path actually taken, which became logical empiricist philosophy of science, greatly contributed to the current impasse over scientific realism. On the other hand, new possibilities are opened in revisiting and reviving the spirit of a more sophisticated tendency, here broadly termed ‘transcendental idealism,’ a cluster of viewpoints principally associated with Ernst Cassirer, Hermann Weyl, and Arthur Eddington. In particular, Weyl’s reformulation of gravitational and electromagnetic theory within the framework of a “pure infinitesimal geometry” under the explicit inspiration of Edmund Husserl’s transcendental-phenomenological idealism is traced in detail and further articulated. It is further argued that Einstein, though initially paying lip service to the emerging philosophy of logical empiricism, ended up siding de facto with the broad contours of the transcendental idealist tendency, which is also a significant progenitor of the contemporary point of view misleadingly designated “structural realism”.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0005
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter considers what the theory actually achieved and specifically reexamines the meaning of the relativity principle. The question of its meaning was raised by critical observers whose ...
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This chapter considers what the theory actually achieved and specifically reexamines the meaning of the relativity principle. The question of its meaning was raised by critical observers whose comments led to a partial reinterpretation of general relativity. The German physicist Erich J. Kretschmann argued that the principle of general covariance has no physical content and only constitutes a mathematical requirement. This contention generated an exchange of letters in which Einstein conceded Kretschmann's criticism, but Einstein does not mention Kretschmann's remarks explicitly in his book. The chapter discusses these developments and correlates them with his correspondence with colleagues and with other texts he published during the formative years.Less
This chapter considers what the theory actually achieved and specifically reexamines the meaning of the relativity principle. The question of its meaning was raised by critical observers whose comments led to a partial reinterpretation of general relativity. The German physicist Erich J. Kretschmann argued that the principle of general covariance has no physical content and only constitutes a mathematical requirement. This contention generated an exchange of letters in which Einstein conceded Kretschmann's criticism, but Einstein does not mention Kretschmann's remarks explicitly in his book. The chapter discusses these developments and correlates them with his correspondence with colleagues and with other texts he published during the formative years.
Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.003.0009
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter addresses one of the key themes of modern general relativity: gravitational waves. In 1916, Einstein performed the first relevant calculations, including a first derivation of the ...
More
This chapter addresses one of the key themes of modern general relativity: gravitational waves. In 1916, Einstein performed the first relevant calculations, including a first derivation of the celebrated quadrupole formula, which contained a mistake that he corrected in 1918. The corrected formula became the basis for the long-term search and the first observational verification of these waves. These calculations provoked a discussion about the reality of these waves, which continued well into the 1950s and beyond. What is worth emphasizing is how Einstein's predominant interest in this phenomenon, which developed immediately after the completion of his general theory, had faded away completely by the time he delivered the Princeton lectures.Less
This chapter addresses one of the key themes of modern general relativity: gravitational waves. In 1916, Einstein performed the first relevant calculations, including a first derivation of the celebrated quadrupole formula, which contained a mistake that he corrected in 1918. The corrected formula became the basis for the long-term search and the first observational verification of these waves. These calculations provoked a discussion about the reality of these waves, which continued well into the 1950s and beyond. What is worth emphasizing is how Einstein's predominant interest in this phenomenon, which developed immediately after the completion of his general theory, had faded away completely by the time he delivered the Princeton lectures.
Jürgen Renn and Hanoch Gutfreund
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780691174631
- eISBN:
- 9781400888689
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691174631.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
First published in 1922 and based on lectures delivered in May 1921, Albert Einstein's The Meaning of Relativity offered an overview and explanation of the then new and controversial theory of ...
More
First published in 1922 and based on lectures delivered in May 1921, Albert Einstein's The Meaning of Relativity offered an overview and explanation of the then new and controversial theory of relativity. The work would go on to become a monumental classic, printed in numerous editions and translations worldwide. Now, this book introduces Einstein's masterpiece to new audiences. The volume contains Einstein's insightful text, accompanied by important historical materials and commentary looking at the origins and development of general relativity. The book provides fresh, original perspectives, placing Einstein's achievements into a broader context for all readers. It tells the rich story behind the early reception, spread, and consequences of Einstein's ideas during the formative years of general relativity in the late 1910s and 1920s. Relativity's meaning changed radically throughout the nascent years of its development, and the book describes in detail the transformation of Einstein's work from the esoteric pursuit of one individual communicating with a handful of colleagues into the preoccupation of a growing community of physicists, astronomers, mathematicians, and philosophers. The book quotes extensively from Einstein's correspondence and reproduces historical documents such as newspaper articles and letters. Inserts are featured in the main text giving concise explanations of basic concepts, and short biographical notes and photographs of some of Einstein's contemporaries are included. The first-ever English translations of two of Einstein's popular Princeton lectures are featured at the book's end.Less
First published in 1922 and based on lectures delivered in May 1921, Albert Einstein's The Meaning of Relativity offered an overview and explanation of the then new and controversial theory of relativity. The work would go on to become a monumental classic, printed in numerous editions and translations worldwide. Now, this book introduces Einstein's masterpiece to new audiences. The volume contains Einstein's insightful text, accompanied by important historical materials and commentary looking at the origins and development of general relativity. The book provides fresh, original perspectives, placing Einstein's achievements into a broader context for all readers. It tells the rich story behind the early reception, spread, and consequences of Einstein's ideas during the formative years of general relativity in the late 1910s and 1920s. Relativity's meaning changed radically throughout the nascent years of its development, and the book describes in detail the transformation of Einstein's work from the esoteric pursuit of one individual communicating with a handful of colleagues into the preoccupation of a growing community of physicists, astronomers, mathematicians, and philosophers. The book quotes extensively from Einstein's correspondence and reproduces historical documents such as newspaper articles and letters. Inserts are featured in the main text giving concise explanations of basic concepts, and short biographical notes and photographs of some of Einstein's contemporaries are included. The first-ever English translations of two of Einstein's popular Princeton lectures are featured at the book's end.
