Bernard M. Hoekman and Michel M. Kostecki
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198294313
- eISBN:
- 9780191596445
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019829431X.003.0012
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, International
The provisions of the WTO (World Trade Organization) for allowing for the negotiation of so‐called ‘plurilateral agreements’ are discussed. These apply only to those members that sign them. The most ...
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The provisions of the WTO (World Trade Organization) for allowing for the negotiation of so‐called ‘plurilateral agreements’ are discussed. These apply only to those members that sign them. The most important of these is currently the Agreement on Government Procurement. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Government procurement; The civil aircraft agreement (Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft); and Conclusion.Less
The provisions of the WTO (World Trade Organization) for allowing for the negotiation of so‐called ‘plurilateral agreements’ are discussed. These apply only to those members that sign them. The most important of these is currently the Agreement on Government Procurement. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Government procurement; The civil aircraft agreement (Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft); and Conclusion.
Ronald A. Brand and Scott R. Jablonski
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195329278
- eISBN:
- 9780199855346
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195329278.003.0003
- Subject:
- Law, Private International Law
This chapter details the history of the development of the doctrine of forum non conveniens in the United States, demonstrating an early inclination to allow judicial discretion to decline ...
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This chapter details the history of the development of the doctrine of forum non conveniens in the United States, demonstrating an early inclination to allow judicial discretion to decline jurisdiction when there is a more appropriate forum in another jurisdiction. It traces the major cases in the U.S. Supreme Court, and reviews the application of the doctrine in lower courts. It also considers the impact on the doctrine of transfer rules within the federal court system, the relationship between the development of the doctrine in federal courts and in state courts, the relationship of the doctrine to basic issues of jurisdiction, and the difference (if any) in application of the doctrine when the plaintiff is local or foreign.Less
This chapter details the history of the development of the doctrine of forum non conveniens in the United States, demonstrating an early inclination to allow judicial discretion to decline jurisdiction when there is a more appropriate forum in another jurisdiction. It traces the major cases in the U.S. Supreme Court, and reviews the application of the doctrine in lower courts. It also considers the impact on the doctrine of transfer rules within the federal court system, the relationship between the development of the doctrine in federal courts and in state courts, the relationship of the doctrine to basic issues of jurisdiction, and the difference (if any) in application of the doctrine when the plaintiff is local or foreign.
Brian D. Laslie
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- January 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780813160597
- eISBN:
- 9780813161297
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University Press of Kentucky
- DOI:
- 10.5810/kentucky/9780813160597.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Military History
This work traces the creation and evolution of air combat training exercises within the U.S. Air Force from Vietnam through Operation Desert Storm and Operation Allied Force. After Vietnam, the USAF ...
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This work traces the creation and evolution of air combat training exercises within the U.S. Air Force from Vietnam through Operation Desert Storm and Operation Allied Force. After Vietnam, the USAF fundamentally changed the way it prepared its combat pilots for air warfare. The creation of the realistic training exercise Red Flag altered the way the air force trained for and executed combat operations. Along the way, the importance of tactical aircraft greatly increased as the importance and contributions of the Strategic Air Command began to wane.Less
This work traces the creation and evolution of air combat training exercises within the U.S. Air Force from Vietnam through Operation Desert Storm and Operation Allied Force. After Vietnam, the USAF fundamentally changed the way it prepared its combat pilots for air warfare. The creation of the realistic training exercise Red Flag altered the way the air force trained for and executed combat operations. Along the way, the importance of tactical aircraft greatly increased as the importance and contributions of the Strategic Air Command began to wane.
Edith Sparks
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9781469633022
- eISBN:
- 9781469633046
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469633022.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
Mid-twentieth-century women could be “bosses” and “ladies” but this required them to effectively navigate inherent tensions between these two labels, to seize opportunities wherever they found them ...
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Mid-twentieth-century women could be “bosses” and “ladies” but this required them to effectively navigate inherent tensions between these two labels, to seize opportunities wherever they found them and sometimes to embrace stereotypical and status quo ideas to support their business success. Boss Lady tells this story, examining the history of three female entrepreneurs who established companies in the 1930s, sold them to major corporations in the 1960s/70s and became some of the first female board members in the country’s largest companies. Tillie Lewis, founder of Flotill Products in Stockton, California, Olive Ann Beech co-founder of Beech Aircraft in Wichita, Kansas, and Margaret Rudkin founder of Pepperidge Farm in Fairfield, Connecticut became the first women on the boards of the Ogden Corporation, Raytheon and Campbell’s Soup. These female leaders began their ascent to the top of the business world before women enjoyed widespread access to higher education, credit discrimination protections or federal incentives for business ownership. And they did so in the manufacturing sector which historically has drawn few female entrepreneurs because of its high barriers to entry. How they charted paths to success by leveraging their networks, capitalizing on relations with government, conforming to conventional labor management strategies, manipulating commonly-held gender ideas to their advantage, and asserting and advocating for themselves is the focus of the book. Restoring this earlier generation of female business leaders to the history of corporate America illustrates what it took for women to be successful in a man’s world in an era of obstacles.Less
Mid-twentieth-century women could be “bosses” and “ladies” but this required them to effectively navigate inherent tensions between these two labels, to seize opportunities wherever they found them and sometimes to embrace stereotypical and status quo ideas to support their business success. Boss Lady tells this story, examining the history of three female entrepreneurs who established companies in the 1930s, sold them to major corporations in the 1960s/70s and became some of the first female board members in the country’s largest companies. Tillie Lewis, founder of Flotill Products in Stockton, California, Olive Ann Beech co-founder of Beech Aircraft in Wichita, Kansas, and Margaret Rudkin founder of Pepperidge Farm in Fairfield, Connecticut became the first women on the boards of the Ogden Corporation, Raytheon and Campbell’s Soup. These female leaders began their ascent to the top of the business world before women enjoyed widespread access to higher education, credit discrimination protections or federal incentives for business ownership. And they did so in the manufacturing sector which historically has drawn few female entrepreneurs because of its high barriers to entry. How they charted paths to success by leveraging their networks, capitalizing on relations with government, conforming to conventional labor management strategies, manipulating commonly-held gender ideas to their advantage, and asserting and advocating for themselves is the focus of the book. Restoring this earlier generation of female business leaders to the history of corporate America illustrates what it took for women to be successful in a man’s world in an era of obstacles.
Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195104271
- eISBN:
- 9780197560983
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195104271.003.0014
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Computer Architecture and Logic Design
A major concern to the founders of modern logic—Frege, Peirce, Russell, and Hilbert—was to give an account of the logical structure of valid reasoning. ...
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A major concern to the founders of modern logic—Frege, Peirce, Russell, and Hilbert—was to give an account of the logical structure of valid reasoning. Taking valid reasoning in mathematics as paradigmatic, these pioneers led the way in developing the accounts of logic which we teach today and that underwrite the work in model theory, proof theory, and definability theory. The resulting notions of proof, model, formal system, soundness, and completeness are things that no one claiming familiarity with logic can fail to understand, and they have also played an enormous role in the revolution known as computer science. The success of this model of inference led to an explosion of results and applications. But it also led most logicians—and those computer scientists most influenced by the logic tradition—to neglect forms of reasoning that did not fit well within this model. We are thinking, of course, of reasoning that uses devices like diagrams, graphs, charts, frames, nets, maps, and pictures. The attitude of the traditional logician to these forms of representation is evident in the quotation of Neil Tennant in Chapter I, which expresses the standard view of the role of diagrams in geometrical proofs. One aim of our work, as explained there, is to demonstrate that this dogma is misguided. We believe that many of the problems people have putting their knowledge of logic to work, whether in machines or in their own lives, stems from the logocentricity that has pervaded its study for the past hundred years. Recently, some researchers outside the logic tradition have explored uses of diagrams in knowledge representation and automated reasoning, finding inspiration in the work of Euler, Venn, and especially C. S. Peirce. This volume is a testament to this resurgence of interest in nonlinguistic representations in reasoning. While we applaud this resurgence, the aim of this chapter is to strike a cautionary note or two. Enchanted by the potential of nonlinguistic representations, it is all too easy to overreact and so to repeat the errors of the past.
Less
A major concern to the founders of modern logic—Frege, Peirce, Russell, and Hilbert—was to give an account of the logical structure of valid reasoning. Taking valid reasoning in mathematics as paradigmatic, these pioneers led the way in developing the accounts of logic which we teach today and that underwrite the work in model theory, proof theory, and definability theory. The resulting notions of proof, model, formal system, soundness, and completeness are things that no one claiming familiarity with logic can fail to understand, and they have also played an enormous role in the revolution known as computer science. The success of this model of inference led to an explosion of results and applications. But it also led most logicians—and those computer scientists most influenced by the logic tradition—to neglect forms of reasoning that did not fit well within this model. We are thinking, of course, of reasoning that uses devices like diagrams, graphs, charts, frames, nets, maps, and pictures. The attitude of the traditional logician to these forms of representation is evident in the quotation of Neil Tennant in Chapter I, which expresses the standard view of the role of diagrams in geometrical proofs. One aim of our work, as explained there, is to demonstrate that this dogma is misguided. We believe that many of the problems people have putting their knowledge of logic to work, whether in machines or in their own lives, stems from the logocentricity that has pervaded its study for the past hundred years. Recently, some researchers outside the logic tradition have explored uses of diagrams in knowledge representation and automated reasoning, finding inspiration in the work of Euler, Venn, and especially C. S. Peirce. This volume is a testament to this resurgence of interest in nonlinguistic representations in reasoning. While we applaud this resurgence, the aim of this chapter is to strike a cautionary note or two. Enchanted by the potential of nonlinguistic representations, it is all too easy to overreact and so to repeat the errors of the past.
R. M. Goody and Y. L. Yung
- Published in print:
- 1989
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195051346
- eISBN:
- 9780197560976
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195051346.003.0010
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Atmospheric Sciences
The source function for scattering, (2.32), is more complicated than a thermal source function on two accounts: it is not a function of local conditions alone, but ...
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The source function for scattering, (2.32), is more complicated than a thermal source function on two accounts: it is not a function of local conditions alone, but involves conditions throughout the atmosphere, through the local radiation field, and the phase function, Pij(s, d), may be an extremely complex function of the directions, s and d, and the states of polarization, i and j. The general solution, (2.87), is still valid, but it is now an integral equation, involving the intensity both on the left-hand side and under the integral on the right-hand side. Successive approximations, starting with the first-order scattering term [third term on the right-hand side of (2.116)], are an obvious approach, and would lead to a solution, but there are more efficient and more accurate ways to solve the problem. Many methods are available because their fundamental theory has proved to be mathematically interesting and because there are important applications in neutron diffusion theory and astrophysics. These motivations are extraneous to atmospheric science, but the availability of the methodology has led to its adoption and extension to atmospheric problems. Many methods are available because their fundamental theory has proved to be mathematically interesting and because there are important applications in neutron diffusion theory and astrophysics. These motivations are extraneous to atmospheric science, but the availability of the methodology has led to its adoption and extension to atmospheric problems. Solutions to scattering problems can be elaborate and mathematically elegant; they can also be numerically onerous but, with access to modern computers, “exact” solutions are feasible, given the input parameters τv, av (=sv/ev), and Pi j. For monochromatic calculations with simple phase functions, numerical solutions present few difficulties. Nevertheless, the combination of unfamiliar formalism with inaccessible and undocumented algorithms can be daunting for those with only a peripheral interest in radiation calculations. It is, therefore, relevant to note that available data are imprecise and virtually never require the accuracy available from exact methods. Easily visualized two-stream approximations, combined with similarity relations to handle complex phase functions (see §§8.4.4 and 8.5.6), are often more than adequate, and some angular information can be added, if required, from the use of Eddington’s second approximation (§ 2.4.5).
Less
The source function for scattering, (2.32), is more complicated than a thermal source function on two accounts: it is not a function of local conditions alone, but involves conditions throughout the atmosphere, through the local radiation field, and the phase function, Pij(s, d), may be an extremely complex function of the directions, s and d, and the states of polarization, i and j. The general solution, (2.87), is still valid, but it is now an integral equation, involving the intensity both on the left-hand side and under the integral on the right-hand side. Successive approximations, starting with the first-order scattering term [third term on the right-hand side of (2.116)], are an obvious approach, and would lead to a solution, but there are more efficient and more accurate ways to solve the problem. Many methods are available because their fundamental theory has proved to be mathematically interesting and because there are important applications in neutron diffusion theory and astrophysics. These motivations are extraneous to atmospheric science, but the availability of the methodology has led to its adoption and extension to atmospheric problems. Many methods are available because their fundamental theory has proved to be mathematically interesting and because there are important applications in neutron diffusion theory and astrophysics. These motivations are extraneous to atmospheric science, but the availability of the methodology has led to its adoption and extension to atmospheric problems. Solutions to scattering problems can be elaborate and mathematically elegant; they can also be numerically onerous but, with access to modern computers, “exact” solutions are feasible, given the input parameters τv, av (=sv/ev), and Pi j. For monochromatic calculations with simple phase functions, numerical solutions present few difficulties. Nevertheless, the combination of unfamiliar formalism with inaccessible and undocumented algorithms can be daunting for those with only a peripheral interest in radiation calculations. It is, therefore, relevant to note that available data are imprecise and virtually never require the accuracy available from exact methods. Easily visualized two-stream approximations, combined with similarity relations to handle complex phase functions (see §§8.4.4 and 8.5.6), are often more than adequate, and some angular information can be added, if required, from the use of Eddington’s second approximation (§ 2.4.5).
Peter Baldwin
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195391206
- eISBN:
- 9780197562741
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195391206.003.0011
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Regional Geography
If We Turn To The Environment and its protection, the contrasts between the United States and Europe are less stark than the debates over Kyoto and global warming ...
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If We Turn To The Environment and its protection, the contrasts between the United States and Europe are less stark than the debates over Kyoto and global warming suggest. Popular attitudes across the Atlantic appear to be quite comparable. A smaller percentage of Americans than any Europeans are fearful that current population trends are unsustainable. The percentage that fears strongly that modern life harms the environment is at the lower end of a very broad European spectrum. But a higher percentage of Americans than anyone other than the gloomy Portuguese are very worried about the environment. Already long before Al Gore and An Inconvenient Truth, proportionately more Americans considered global warming extremely dangerous than do the Dutch, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns. Relatively more Americans than anyone but the Swiss claim to be very willing to pay higher prices to protect the environment. Proportionately more Americans than any Europeans are prepared to pay higher taxes for the sake of nature. Americans also claim willingness more than anyone other than the Swiss and the Swedes to accept a cut in living standards to achieve such ends. A higher percentage of Americans think that government should pass laws to protect the environment than the British, Swiss, Dutch, Germans, and all Scandinavians other than the Danes. American executives are more convinced that complying with government environmental standards helps their businesses’ long-term competitiveness than their colleagues in Germany, Iceland, Austria, Luxembourg, Greece, Belgium, the Netherlands, Ireland, Italy, Spain, or Portugal. In a recent comparative ranking of environmental policy conducted by Yale and Columbia universities, the score assigned the United States was not impressive. But that of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Greece was worse. The Achilles’ heel of America’s environmental policy is its energy inefficiency, which is partly related to the size of the country and the extremities of its weather. On most other measures, U.S. rankings are better
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If We Turn To The Environment and its protection, the contrasts between the United States and Europe are less stark than the debates over Kyoto and global warming suggest. Popular attitudes across the Atlantic appear to be quite comparable. A smaller percentage of Americans than any Europeans are fearful that current population trends are unsustainable. The percentage that fears strongly that modern life harms the environment is at the lower end of a very broad European spectrum. But a higher percentage of Americans than anyone other than the gloomy Portuguese are very worried about the environment. Already long before Al Gore and An Inconvenient Truth, proportionately more Americans considered global warming extremely dangerous than do the Dutch, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns. Relatively more Americans than anyone but the Swiss claim to be very willing to pay higher prices to protect the environment. Proportionately more Americans than any Europeans are prepared to pay higher taxes for the sake of nature. Americans also claim willingness more than anyone other than the Swiss and the Swedes to accept a cut in living standards to achieve such ends. A higher percentage of Americans think that government should pass laws to protect the environment than the British, Swiss, Dutch, Germans, and all Scandinavians other than the Danes. American executives are more convinced that complying with government environmental standards helps their businesses’ long-term competitiveness than their colleagues in Germany, Iceland, Austria, Luxembourg, Greece, Belgium, the Netherlands, Ireland, Italy, Spain, or Portugal. In a recent comparative ranking of environmental policy conducted by Yale and Columbia universities, the score assigned the United States was not impressive. But that of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Greece was worse. The Achilles’ heel of America’s environmental policy is its energy inefficiency, which is partly related to the size of the country and the extremities of its weather. On most other measures, U.S. rankings are better
J. C. Kaimal and J. J. Finnigan
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195062397
- eISBN:
- 9780197560167
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195062397.003.0007
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Atmospheric Sciences
The micrometeorologist setting out to find a field site that satisfies the requirements of horizontal homogeneity will soon be reminded that most of the earth’s ...
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The micrometeorologist setting out to find a field site that satisfies the requirements of horizontal homogeneity will soon be reminded that most of the earth’s surface is not flat and that most of the flat bits are inconveniently heterogeneous. This is what forced the location of early pioneering experiments to remote sites such as Kansas, Minnesota, or Hay (Chapter 1), where the elusive conditions could be realized. Vital as these experiments were to the development of our understanding, they are merely the point of departure for applications to arbitrary terrain. The components of arbitrariness are two: changes in the land surface and hills. In this chapter we discuss the first of these, flow over changing surface conditions; in Chapter 5 we look at flow over hills. In the real world, the two conditions often occur together — in farmland it is the hills too steep to plow that are left covered with trees — but we separate them here to clarify the explication of phenomena and because treating them in combination would exceed the state of the art. We simplify the problem of horizontal heterogeneity still further and discuss mainly single changes in surface conditions from one extensive uniform surface to another. Furthermore, the change will typically be at right angles to the wind direction so the resulting flow field is two-dimensional. Although multiple changes are now receiving theoretical attention (Belcher et al., 1990; Claussen, 1991), there exist as yet no experimental data for comparison. Two types of surface change may be distinguished at the outset: change in surface roughness, which produces a change in surface momentum flux with a direct effect upon the wind field, and change in the surface availability of some scalar. Those of most interest are the active scalars, heat and moisture. (These are called active because their fluxes and concentrations affect stability and thereby turbulent mixing and momentum transfer, as we saw in Chapters 1 and 3.) We shall discover significant differences in flow behavior according to whether the wind blows from a smooth to a rough surface or a rough to a smooth surface.
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The micrometeorologist setting out to find a field site that satisfies the requirements of horizontal homogeneity will soon be reminded that most of the earth’s surface is not flat and that most of the flat bits are inconveniently heterogeneous. This is what forced the location of early pioneering experiments to remote sites such as Kansas, Minnesota, or Hay (Chapter 1), where the elusive conditions could be realized. Vital as these experiments were to the development of our understanding, they are merely the point of departure for applications to arbitrary terrain. The components of arbitrariness are two: changes in the land surface and hills. In this chapter we discuss the first of these, flow over changing surface conditions; in Chapter 5 we look at flow over hills. In the real world, the two conditions often occur together — in farmland it is the hills too steep to plow that are left covered with trees — but we separate them here to clarify the explication of phenomena and because treating them in combination would exceed the state of the art. We simplify the problem of horizontal heterogeneity still further and discuss mainly single changes in surface conditions from one extensive uniform surface to another. Furthermore, the change will typically be at right angles to the wind direction so the resulting flow field is two-dimensional. Although multiple changes are now receiving theoretical attention (Belcher et al., 1990; Claussen, 1991), there exist as yet no experimental data for comparison. Two types of surface change may be distinguished at the outset: change in surface roughness, which produces a change in surface momentum flux with a direct effect upon the wind field, and change in the surface availability of some scalar. Those of most interest are the active scalars, heat and moisture. (These are called active because their fluxes and concentrations affect stability and thereby turbulent mixing and momentum transfer, as we saw in Chapters 1 and 3.) We shall discover significant differences in flow behavior according to whether the wind blows from a smooth to a rough surface or a rough to a smooth surface.
J. C. Kaimal and J. J. Finnigan
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195062397
- eISBN:
- 9780197560167
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195062397.003.0009
- Subject:
- Earth Sciences and Geography, Atmospheric Sciences
Sensors used for boundary layer measurements fall into two broad categories: in situ sensors that can be mounted on the ground, on masts, towers, tethered balloons, ...
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Sensors used for boundary layer measurements fall into two broad categories: in situ sensors that can be mounted on the ground, on masts, towers, tethered balloons, free balloons, or aircraft; and remote sensors, ground-based or aircraft-mounted, that infer atmospheric properties through their effects on acoustic, microwave, and optical signals propagating through the air. In situ sensors are the traditional instruments of choice for surface and lower boundary layer studies, being the only ones capable of the accuracy and resolution needed for quantitative work. A major portion of this chapter will therefore be devoted to discussions of their characteristics. Remote sensors have the advantage of increased range and spatial scanning capability, but the constraints on minimum range and spatial resolution limit their usefulness for surface layer measurements. Used in combination, however, the two types of sensors provide a more complete description of the flow field being studied than either of the two can provide separately. New remote sensors with shorter minimum ranges and finer range resolutions are now becoming available for boundary layer applications. A brief discussion of such devices is also included in this chapter. The variables of greatest interest to boundary layer meteorologists are wind speed, temperature, humidity, and the fluxes of momentum, heat, mass, and radiant energy. Given suitable fast-response measurements of wind velocity and scalar fluctuations, we can calculate the eddy fluxes directly from the products of their fluctuating components as explained in Chapter 1. If only the gradients of their means are available, however, then over a flat homogeneous surface the fluxes may be inferred from the Monin-Obukhov relationships of Chapters 1 and 3. Practical methods for doing that are described in many texts; see, for example, Monteith (1975, 1976). (Those simple relationships do not hold, as we know, under advective conditions, in plant canopies, and over hills.) There are also sensors in use that measure surface and near-surface fluxes directly, such as the drag plate (surface stress), the lysimeter (latent heat flux), flux plates (soil heat flux), and radiometers (radiant heat flux). We will discuss these and a few other types as well because of their application to studies of plant canopies.
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Sensors used for boundary layer measurements fall into two broad categories: in situ sensors that can be mounted on the ground, on masts, towers, tethered balloons, free balloons, or aircraft; and remote sensors, ground-based or aircraft-mounted, that infer atmospheric properties through their effects on acoustic, microwave, and optical signals propagating through the air. In situ sensors are the traditional instruments of choice for surface and lower boundary layer studies, being the only ones capable of the accuracy and resolution needed for quantitative work. A major portion of this chapter will therefore be devoted to discussions of their characteristics. Remote sensors have the advantage of increased range and spatial scanning capability, but the constraints on minimum range and spatial resolution limit their usefulness for surface layer measurements. Used in combination, however, the two types of sensors provide a more complete description of the flow field being studied than either of the two can provide separately. New remote sensors with shorter minimum ranges and finer range resolutions are now becoming available for boundary layer applications. A brief discussion of such devices is also included in this chapter. The variables of greatest interest to boundary layer meteorologists are wind speed, temperature, humidity, and the fluxes of momentum, heat, mass, and radiant energy. Given suitable fast-response measurements of wind velocity and scalar fluctuations, we can calculate the eddy fluxes directly from the products of their fluctuating components as explained in Chapter 1. If only the gradients of their means are available, however, then over a flat homogeneous surface the fluxes may be inferred from the Monin-Obukhov relationships of Chapters 1 and 3. Practical methods for doing that are described in many texts; see, for example, Monteith (1975, 1976). (Those simple relationships do not hold, as we know, under advective conditions, in plant canopies, and over hills.) There are also sensors in use that measure surface and near-surface fluxes directly, such as the drag plate (surface stress), the lysimeter (latent heat flux), flux plates (soil heat flux), and radiometers (radiant heat flux). We will discuss these and a few other types as well because of their application to studies of plant canopies.
Jonathan E. Lewis
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- October 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780300091922
- eISBN:
- 9780300129052
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300091922.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
This chapter examines how the CIA had failed successfully to develop even a handful of spies within the Soviet Union. Using people to monitor bases was simply not possible. In desperation, Ike ...
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This chapter examines how the CIA had failed successfully to develop even a handful of spies within the Soviet Union. Using people to monitor bases was simply not possible. In desperation, Ike approved a stopgap measure. It was a spy plane called the U-2, and it penetrated the Soviet air space for the first time. By the end of World War II, the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation had become a major contractor for the Pentagon. Rockefeller's investment in the Nuclear Development Corporation was a direct result of Strauss's influence and interests. The proposals for Corporation X made clear that in its early stages, the company would build equipment that would process intelligence. But in the proposal, there was no suggestion that Corporation X would process intelligence about Soviet military capabilities obtained from spy satellites.Less
This chapter examines how the CIA had failed successfully to develop even a handful of spies within the Soviet Union. Using people to monitor bases was simply not possible. In desperation, Ike approved a stopgap measure. It was a spy plane called the U-2, and it penetrated the Soviet air space for the first time. By the end of World War II, the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation had become a major contractor for the Pentagon. Rockefeller's investment in the Nuclear Development Corporation was a direct result of Strauss's influence and interests. The proposals for Corporation X made clear that in its early stages, the company would build equipment that would process intelligence. But in the proposal, there was no suggestion that Corporation X would process intelligence about Soviet military capabilities obtained from spy satellites.
David Clarke
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780748678891
- eISBN:
- 9780748689286
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748678891.003.0011
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Scottish Studies
This chapter deals with the development of Glasgow's astronomy under Professor William Smart. Some of his early work in Cambridge was related to the motions of the newly discovered Trojan satellites ...
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This chapter deals with the development of Glasgow's astronomy under Professor William Smart. Some of his early work in Cambridge was related to the motions of the newly discovered Trojan satellites of Jupiter. His career and direction of work within the subject was changed by World War I naval service and by making contributions to navigational practices. On taking the Glasgow Chair in 1937, Horselethill Observatory and its land were sold. A modest teaching observatory in University Gardens close to the main campus at Gilmorehill was opened in 1939. Although a man of practical and observational experiences, Smart abandoned any prospect of observational research in Glasgow and he continued with theoretical topics and data reductions related to stellar streaming within the Galaxy; he produced classical texts on stellar kinematics. Again, directions of teaching were affected by World War II as aircraft navigation developed as an important facet. He wrote several texts of merit in addition to some popular descriptive books. In the 1950s the face of astronomy changed with the physical understanding of the nature of heavenly objects coming to the fore. This can be seen through the appointments of staff bringing new interests and disciplines to the local scene.Less
This chapter deals with the development of Glasgow's astronomy under Professor William Smart. Some of his early work in Cambridge was related to the motions of the newly discovered Trojan satellites of Jupiter. His career and direction of work within the subject was changed by World War I naval service and by making contributions to navigational practices. On taking the Glasgow Chair in 1937, Horselethill Observatory and its land were sold. A modest teaching observatory in University Gardens close to the main campus at Gilmorehill was opened in 1939. Although a man of practical and observational experiences, Smart abandoned any prospect of observational research in Glasgow and he continued with theoretical topics and data reductions related to stellar streaming within the Galaxy; he produced classical texts on stellar kinematics. Again, directions of teaching were affected by World War II as aircraft navigation developed as an important facet. He wrote several texts of merit in addition to some popular descriptive books. In the 1950s the face of astronomy changed with the physical understanding of the nature of heavenly objects coming to the fore. This can be seen through the appointments of staff bringing new interests and disciplines to the local scene.
Sarah Jo Peterson
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- September 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780226025421
- eISBN:
- 9780226025568
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226025568.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
The Consolidated Aircraft plant in San Diego produced its 1,000th bomber in November 1942 while the Willow Run Bomber Plant in Ypsilanti Township achieved this milestone only one year later. Despite ...
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The Consolidated Aircraft plant in San Diego produced its 1,000th bomber in November 1942 while the Willow Run Bomber Plant in Ypsilanti Township achieved this milestone only one year later. Despite the continued increase in production at Willow Run in 1943, it was unable to satisfy the federal government’s expectations. In order to mass produce large bombers, the Ford Motor Company had to coordinate with the Consolidated Aircraft plant and the Army Air Forces, but Willow Run’s biggest problem was the lack of manpower. This chapter examines the manpower and production crises at Willow Run Bomber Plant and the recruitment of workers. It also looks at the conflict between Henry Ford and Harry Bennett on one side and Edsel Ford and Charles Sorensen on the other.Less
The Consolidated Aircraft plant in San Diego produced its 1,000th bomber in November 1942 while the Willow Run Bomber Plant in Ypsilanti Township achieved this milestone only one year later. Despite the continued increase in production at Willow Run in 1943, it was unable to satisfy the federal government’s expectations. In order to mass produce large bombers, the Ford Motor Company had to coordinate with the Consolidated Aircraft plant and the Army Air Forces, but Willow Run’s biggest problem was the lack of manpower. This chapter examines the manpower and production crises at Willow Run Bomber Plant and the recruitment of workers. It also looks at the conflict between Henry Ford and Harry Bennett on one side and Edsel Ford and Charles Sorensen on the other.
Pesach Malovany IDF (Ret.), Amatzia Baram, Kevin M. Woods, and Ronna Englesberg
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780813169439
- eISBN:
- 9780813169514
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Kentucky
- DOI:
- 10.5810/kentucky/9780813169439.003.0053
- Subject:
- History, Military History
This chapter deals with Iraq air arm, that includes the Air Force, the Army Aviation and the Air Defence forces. The air arm underwent during the Saddam era an impressive empowerment process—both ...
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This chapter deals with Iraq air arm, that includes the Air Force, the Army Aviation and the Air Defence forces. The air arm underwent during the Saddam era an impressive empowerment process—both qualitatively and quantitatively—and accumulated broad operational experience, especially during the war against Iran. Nevertheless, in the Gulf War of 1991 and the arms embargo imposed on Iraq in its wake toppled it from its pinnacle of power to total disintegration. The air arm’s destiny symbolized more than anything else the decline of the Iraqi Army from glorious victory at the end of the war against Iran to total collapse after the two wars against coalition forces.Less
This chapter deals with Iraq air arm, that includes the Air Force, the Army Aviation and the Air Defence forces. The air arm underwent during the Saddam era an impressive empowerment process—both qualitatively and quantitatively—and accumulated broad operational experience, especially during the war against Iran. Nevertheless, in the Gulf War of 1991 and the arms embargo imposed on Iraq in its wake toppled it from its pinnacle of power to total disintegration. The air arm’s destiny symbolized more than anything else the decline of the Iraqi Army from glorious victory at the end of the war against Iran to total collapse after the two wars against coalition forces.
Philip Ollerenshaw
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780719090509
- eISBN:
- 9781781706206
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Manchester University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7228/manchester/9780719090509.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, UK Politics
In this chapter, the experience of agriculture and key industries including textiles and clothing, shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture are considered, as are labour and industrial relations and how ...
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In this chapter, the experience of agriculture and key industries including textiles and clothing, shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture are considered, as are labour and industrial relations and how the government began to plan for the post-war world. Feeding the nation was a key priority for the government in London, and agriculture in Northern Ireland not only expanded during war, it also underwent considerable mechanisation. However, the experience of the rural economy, along with the 1941 blitz on Belfast, helped to focus on issues such as rural and urban housing and the provision of social services which would have considerable political consequences in the later stages of the war and in the years afterwards.Less
In this chapter, the experience of agriculture and key industries including textiles and clothing, shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture are considered, as are labour and industrial relations and how the government began to plan for the post-war world. Feeding the nation was a key priority for the government in London, and agriculture in Northern Ireland not only expanded during war, it also underwent considerable mechanisation. However, the experience of the rural economy, along with the 1941 blitz on Belfast, helped to focus on issues such as rural and urban housing and the provision of social services which would have considerable political consequences in the later stages of the war and in the years afterwards.
Hermione Giffard
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780226388595
- eISBN:
- 9780226388625
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226388625.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
This chapter focuses on development and details the consequences for early jet engine designs of the involvement of existing aero-engine companies in creating jet engines. In contrast to the now ...
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This chapter focuses on development and details the consequences for early jet engine designs of the involvement of existing aero-engine companies in creating jet engines. In contrast to the now dominant interpretation of Edward Constant, which sees the jet engine arising outside of a conservative aero-engine industry that opposed it, this chapter emphasizes the ways in which the jet engine was made possible by continuity – by the expertise of the existing aero-engine industry. Studying each of Britain and Germany’s aero-engine firms sequentially and in detail, the chapter examines the relationship between piston engines and jet engines and argues that the aero-engine industry was the natural place for these engines to be developed. Importantly, it offers an extensive account of how Rolls-Royce entered the new field of engine design. The chapter argues that it was not only familiarity with elements of the new engines, but also firms’ organizational and methodological abilities that crucially shaped the first jet engines. Through detailed technical comparison, the chapter emphasizes that the first jet engines were not identical, but very particular machines that reflected the particular settings in which they were made.Less
This chapter focuses on development and details the consequences for early jet engine designs of the involvement of existing aero-engine companies in creating jet engines. In contrast to the now dominant interpretation of Edward Constant, which sees the jet engine arising outside of a conservative aero-engine industry that opposed it, this chapter emphasizes the ways in which the jet engine was made possible by continuity – by the expertise of the existing aero-engine industry. Studying each of Britain and Germany’s aero-engine firms sequentially and in detail, the chapter examines the relationship between piston engines and jet engines and argues that the aero-engine industry was the natural place for these engines to be developed. Importantly, it offers an extensive account of how Rolls-Royce entered the new field of engine design. The chapter argues that it was not only familiarity with elements of the new engines, but also firms’ organizational and methodological abilities that crucially shaped the first jet engines. Through detailed technical comparison, the chapter emphasizes that the first jet engines were not identical, but very particular machines that reflected the particular settings in which they were made.
Hermione Giffard
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780226388595
- eISBN:
- 9780226388625
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226388625.003.0004
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
This chapter proposes that we can better understand the dynamics of invention in the twentieth-century by studying inventive institutions (institutions that specialize in invention) instead of ...
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This chapter proposes that we can better understand the dynamics of invention in the twentieth-century by studying inventive institutions (institutions that specialize in invention) instead of independent inventors. It offers a new account of the two most well-known institutions in the history of the jet engine: Power Jets and the Heinkel Aircraft Company. Each is associated with a first jet flight, yet neither managed to produce jet engines – like the firms discussed in the last chapter. These two companies are studied in order to provide insight into the work of Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, the most prominent individuals known for inventing the jet engine. The chapter argues that the institutional instability of the two companies where these men worked resulted in their work having little long-term impact on wider technical practice. Understanding invention as a corporate capability challenges the assumption of the literature that production is the primary object of companies investing in technical change. This chapter shows why this account mentions the two most well known figures only in its second half of the book.Less
This chapter proposes that we can better understand the dynamics of invention in the twentieth-century by studying inventive institutions (institutions that specialize in invention) instead of independent inventors. It offers a new account of the two most well-known institutions in the history of the jet engine: Power Jets and the Heinkel Aircraft Company. Each is associated with a first jet flight, yet neither managed to produce jet engines – like the firms discussed in the last chapter. These two companies are studied in order to provide insight into the work of Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, the most prominent individuals known for inventing the jet engine. The chapter argues that the institutional instability of the two companies where these men worked resulted in their work having little long-term impact on wider technical practice. Understanding invention as a corporate capability challenges the assumption of the literature that production is the primary object of companies investing in technical change. This chapter shows why this account mentions the two most well known figures only in its second half of the book.
James Nye
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780198717256
- eISBN:
- 9780191785986
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198717256.003.0005
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Business History, Knowledge Management
Smiths’ products are needed in aircraft, ships, and fighting vehicles. It has two shadow factories under way in 1939 and diverts resources into materiel and other war-related production from the ...
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Smiths’ products are needed in aircraft, ships, and fighting vehicles. It has two shadow factories under way in 1939 and diverts resources into materiel and other war-related production from the outset of war, as its precision clock- and instrument-making capacity are easily adapted to war purposes. Smiths manufactures for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, to which the newly ennobled Sir Allan Gordon-Smith is conveniently seconded. Highly personal memories provide wry and amusing insights into wartime life. Inadequate planning for sourcing specialist raw materials is illustrated in Smiths’ role in a wider diplomatic smuggling effort involving the British embassy in Berne. The creation of enhanced and precision engineering capacity leads, as early as 1942, to detailed planning for the post-war period, highlighting themes of both future security as well as job creation/preservation. Important post-war relationships, for example, between Allan Gordon-Smith and Stafford Cripps, are forgedLess
Smiths’ products are needed in aircraft, ships, and fighting vehicles. It has two shadow factories under way in 1939 and diverts resources into materiel and other war-related production from the outset of war, as its precision clock- and instrument-making capacity are easily adapted to war purposes. Smiths manufactures for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, to which the newly ennobled Sir Allan Gordon-Smith is conveniently seconded. Highly personal memories provide wry and amusing insights into wartime life. Inadequate planning for sourcing specialist raw materials is illustrated in Smiths’ role in a wider diplomatic smuggling effort involving the British embassy in Berne. The creation of enhanced and precision engineering capacity leads, as early as 1942, to detailed planning for the post-war period, highlighting themes of both future security as well as job creation/preservation. Important post-war relationships, for example, between Allan Gordon-Smith and Stafford Cripps, are forged