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In the last decades, rights to social assistance benefits have become more conditional. Governments in Europe, as in other welfare states, have sought to ‘activate’ their unemployed citizens by requiring them to participate in mandatory work programmes. This chapter examines how liberal and communitarian thinkers have justified or rejected welfare-to-work (WTW) policies within social assistance systems and how these policies have been legitimised by key notions of inclusion, responsibilisation, employability and empowerment, which correspond with liberal and communitarian justifications of WTW. Drawing on critical socio-legal literature, the authors question these justifications and clarify their decision to explore WTW from a threefold normative perspective that takes into account: 1) power relations and human social rights (the legal perspective); 2) lived experiences within WTW relationships, including endemic power asymmetries and perceptions of justice (the sociological perspective); and 3) the republican theory of non-domination (the philosophical perspective). The last part of this chapter introduces the chapters of this book.

The promoters of welfare-to-work programmes sometimes state that these are based on the will to ‘better realise’ the right to work of their recipients. This chapter questions this assumption and examines whether and under which conditions, those programmes could eventually find their foundation on the fundamental right to work proclaimed in international human rights texts. It demonstrates from an analysis of the international pacts, their preparatory texts and the case law that welfare-to-work measures can only be considered as aimed at realising the right to work if they are likely to improve the chances of their recipients to later find a freely chosen, paid and productive job in the labour market. It shows that this open and abstract condition excludes a large part of welfare-to-work measures from a human rights-based justification for the type of work they value or the way they are implemented.

The chapter explores how Danish WTW policies have recently been implemented and extended while to a large degree avoiding the hazards of public justification. The chapter investigates three cases, which exemplify three different ways to expand the scope of WTW polices, without them having to be publicly justified. The first case digs into classification processes where the work capability of Danish social assistance claimants is assessed. It shows how incremental changes of such processes have formed a system where more and more claimants are deemed capable of working – and therefore legitimate targets of harsher demands and sanctions. The second case explores how the political quest for evidence-based employment policies comes with an inherent bias: ‘Evidence’ is constructed in ways that clearly favour work first policies. The third case investigates how the municipal welfare offices’ autonomy to try out new and innovative activation programs, is currently being restructured by subtle changes that increase the incentives to take up activations programs that support WTW strategies.

The introduction argues for the relevance of looking into the moral repertoire of ALMP reforms in public debates. The chapter argues for why the study of ideas and morality is pivotal to understand (and criticize) the political implications of ALMP reforms. Hereafter, the chapter engages critically with two sets of literatures. Firstly, scholars that have tried to theorize the varieties within the active turn, and secondly, with existing conceptualisations of the role of ideas and morality in relation to political and institutional changes. The last part of the chapter outlines a non-normative, but critical, approach (Hansen 2016) which deliberately refuses to evaluate the performance or judge the normative standards of ALMP in order to map the plurality of ideas related to ALMPs, as well as how these sediment into the everyday governing of the unemployed.

To assemble the framework of the cytotoxic macrolide Amphidinolide X 3, Fèlix Urpí and Jaume Vilarrasa of the Universitat de Barcelona devised (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 5191) the ring-closing metathesis of the alkenyl silane 1. No Ru catalyst was effective, but the Schrock Mo catalyst worked well. In the course of a synthesis of (-)-Dactylolide 6, Michael P. Jennings of the University of Alabama offered (J. Org. Chem. 2008, 73, 5965) a timely reminder of the particular reactivity of allylic alcohols in ring-closing metathesis. The cyclization of 4 to 5 proceeded smoothly, but attempted ring closing of the corresponding bis silyl ether failed. Polyenes such as ( + )-Cytotrienin A 8 are notoriously unstable. It is remarkable that Yujiro Hayashi of the Tokyo University of Science could (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 6657) assemble the triene of 8 by the ring-closing metathesis of the highly functionalized precursor 7. Bicyclo [2.2.2] structures such as 9 are readily available by the addition of, in this case, methyl acrylate to an enantiomerically-pure 2-methylated dihydropyridine. André B. Charette of the Université de Montréal found (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 13873) that 9 responded well to ring-opening/ring-closing metathesis, to give the octahydroquinoline 10. Functional group manipulation converted 10 into the Clavelina alkaloid ( + )-Lepadin B 11. The construction of trisubstituted alkenes by ring-closing metathesis can be difficult, and medium rings with their transannular strain are notoriously challenging to form. Nevertheless, Karl-Heinz Altmann of the ETH Zürich was able (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 10081), using the H2 catalyst, to cyclize 12 to cyclononene 13, the precursor to the Xenia lactone ( + )-Blumiolide C 14. It is noteworthy that these fi ve syntheses used four different metathesis catalysts in the key alkene forming step. For the cyclization of 7, the use of the Grubbs first generation catalyst G1, that couples terminal alkenes but tends not to interact with internal alkenes, was probably critical to success.

The sedative alkaloid paliurine F 7 is a pentapeptide bridged by an arene. Gwilherm Evano of the Université de Versailles took advantage of this in his synthesis (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 572) of 7, although it was necessary to prepare, from serine, one of the amino acid derivatives, the protected 3-hydroxyprolinol 2. The key step in the synthesis was the Cu-catalyzed intramolecular coupling of 5 to give the macrolactam 6. Deprotection and acylation then gave paliurine F 7. Lepadiformine 14, isolated from the tunicate Clavelina lepadiformis, shows moderate cytotoxicity, and is also a K+ channel blocker. The synthesis of 14 (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 2631) by Donald Craig of Imperial College started with the aziridine 8, prepared from the corresponding epoxide. Opening of the protected aziridine with the anion of methyl phenyl sulfone set the stage for condensation of the dianion derived from 9 with the aldehyde 10, to give, with high diastereocontrol, the amine 11. Deprotection followed by cyclization then led to the activated ether 12. While the opening of 12 with an alkyl Grignard reagent proceeded with undesired inversion at the reacting center, opening with the alkynyl Grignard delivered mainly the desired 13. Reduction followed by oxidation, epimerization and reduction then gave lepadiformine 14. The Amaryllidaceae alkaloid 7-deoxypancratistatin 21 has potent antiviral activity. A challenge in the assembly of 21 is that the ring fusion is trans, less stable than the corresponding cis diastereomer. The synthesis of 21 (J. Org. Chem. 2007, 72, 2570) by Albert Padwa of Emory University started with 17, the preparation of which by the combination 15 and 16 he had previously reported in the course of his synthesis of lycoricidine (OHL December 11, 2006). Ester 17 had the desired trans ring fusion, but with an angular ester substituent that had to be removed. While it would be expected from the mechanism that Rh-mediated decarbonylation of an aldehyde would proceed with retention of absolute configuration, and this had been confirmed experimentally, this reaction had not been applied to such a challenging substrate. In the event, the transformation proceeded smoothly, to give the desired trans 19. Dehydration and dihydroxylation of 19 led to the cyclic sulfate 20, selective SN2 opening of which delivered 7-deoxypancratistatin 21.

Several new methods have been put forward for the functionalization of benzene derivatives. J. S. Yadav of the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad has devised (Chem. Lett. 2008, 37, 652) a procedure for direct thiocyanation, converting 1 into 2. Sukbok Chang of KAIST has established (Chem. Commun. 2008, 3052) that both NH4Cl and aqueous NH3 could be used to directly aminate an aryl iodide such as 3. John F. Hartwig of the University of Illinois has developed (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 7534) a protocol for the directed borylation of anilines such as 5 and of phenols, based on a transient silylation. Karsten Menzel of Merck West Point (Tetrahedron Lett. 2008, 49, 415) has observed selective exchange of tribromobenzene derivatives such as 7, with the direction of the selectivity being controlled by the fourth substituent on the benzene. Gary A. Molander of the University of Pennsylvania has extensively developed the stable, readily prepared trifluoroborates, exemplified by 10 (J. Org. Chem. 2008, 73, 2052) and 14 (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 1795) as partners for Suzuki-Miyaura coupling. The conversion of 9 to 10 is complementary to aminocarbonylation, exemplified by the conversion of 12 to 13 reported (Tetrahedron Lett. 2008, 49, 2221) by Bhalchandra M. Bhanage of the Institute of Chemical Technology, University of Mumbai. The coupling of 9 with 14 is complementary to the long-known Heck coupling of an aryl halide such as 16 with an allylic alcohol, as illustrated by the preparation of 18 described (Tetrahedron Lett. 2008, 49, 3279) by Martin E. Maier of the Universität Tübingen. Professor Hartwig has also (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 1545, 1549) optimized conditions for the Pd-catalyzed arylation of ester enolates such as 19. Gang Zhou of Schering-Plough, Kenilworth, NJ has developed (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 2517) a related transformation, the arylation of deprotonated sulfonamides. Peter Somfai of the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm has established (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 1907) a complementary procedure, base-mediated elimination of t -butoxide from 24, followed by 1,2-addition of an aryl or heteroaryl Grignard reagent.

Benjamin List of the Max Planck Institute, Mülheim devised (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 6070) a chiral primary amine salt that catalyzed the enantioselective epoxidation of cyclohexenone 1 . Larger ring and alkyl-substituted enones are also epoxidized with high ee. Three- and four-membered rings are versatile intermediates for further transformation. Tsutomu Katsuki of Kyushu University developed (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 2450) an elegant Al(salalen) catalyst for the enantioselective Simmons-Smith cyclopropanation of allylic alcohols such as 3. Kazuaki Ishihara of Nagoya University found (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 8930) chiral amine salts that effected enantioselective 2+2 cycloaddition of α-acyloxyacroleins such as 5 to alkenes to give the cyclobutane 7 with high enantio- and diastereocontrol. Gideon Grogan of the University of York overexpressed (Adv. Synth. Cat. 2008, 349, 916) the enzyme 6-oxocamphor hydrolase in E. coli . The 6-OCH so prepared converted prochiral diketones such as 8 to the cyclopentane 9 in high ee. Richard P. Hsung of the University of Wisconsin found (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 661) that the carbene produced by oxidation of the ynamide 10 cyclized to 11 with high de. Teck-Peng Loh of Nanyang Technological University extended (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 7194) butane-2,3-diol directed cyclization to the preparation of the cyclopentane 15. Note that sidechain relative configuration is also controlled. We established (J. Org. Chem. 2008, 73, 3467) that the thermal ene reaction of 17 delivered the tetrasubstituted cyclopentane 18 as a single diastereomer. Tony K. M. Shing of the Chinese University of Hong Kong devised (J. Org. Chem. 2007, 72, 6610) a simple protocol for the conversion of carbohydrate-derived lactones such as 19 to the highly-substituted, enantiomerically-pure cyclohexenone 21. Hiromichi Fujioka and Yasuyuki Kita of Osaka University established (Organic Lett. 2007, 9, 5605) a chiral diol-mediated conversion of the cyclohexadiene 22 to the diastereomerically pure cyclohexenone 24. Dirk Trauner, now of the University of Munich, reported (Organic Lett. 2008, 10, 149) an elegant assembly of the neuritogenic polyketide shimalactone A 28.

Often, 6,6-spiroketals such as Spirofungin A 3 have a strong anomeric bias. Spirofungin A does not, as the epimer favored by double anomeric stabilization suffers from destabilizing steric interactions. In his synthesis of 3, Sergey A. Kozmin of the University of Chicago took advantage (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 8854) of the normally-destablizing spatial proximity of the two alkyl branches of 3, joining them with a siloxy linker to assure the anomeric preference of the spiroketal. The assembly of 1 showcased the power of asymmetric crotylation, and of Professor Kozmin’s linchpin cyclopropenone ketal cross metathesis. To achieve the syn relative (and absolute) configuration of 6, commercial cis-2-butene was metalated, then condensed with the Brown (+)-MeOB(Ipc)2 auxiliary. The accompanying Supporting Information, accessible via the online HTML version of the journal article, includes a succinct but detailed procedure for carrying out this homologation. For the anti relative (and absolute) configuration of 9, it is more convenient to use the tartrate 8 introduced by Roush. Driven by the release of the ring strain inherent in 10, ring opening cross metathesis with 6 proceeded to give the 1:1 adduct 11 in near quantitative yield. The derived cross-linked silyl ether 12 underwent smooth ring-closing metathesis to the dienone 1. On hydogenation, the now-flexible ring system could fold into the spiro ketal. With the primary and secondary alcohols bridged by the linking silyl ether, only one anomeric form, 2, of the spiro ketal was energetically accessible. A remaining challenge was the stereocontrolled construction of the trisubstituted alkene. To this end, the aldehyde 13 was homologated to the dibromide 14. Pd-mediated coupling of the alkenyl stannane 15 with 14 was selective for the E bromide. The residual Z bromide was then coupled with Zn(CH3)2 to give 16. These steps, and the final steps to complete the construction of spirofungin A 3 , could be carried out without exposure to equilibrating acid, so the carefully established spiro ketal confi guration was maintained.

Over 23,000 Brown Ware sherds, most undecorated, were recovered during excavations at several mid-nineteenth-century archaeological sites in Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. Diagnostic sherds (especially rim fragments) from the entire collection, as well as all specimens from a single well-defined context, were examined and provide the basis for interpretation of vessel production, form, and use. INNA (Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis) and petrographic thin section results are also reviewed. These studies demonstrate that precontact Native American ceramic fabrication and vessel form traditions predominated in the Mexican Republic and early America eras (i.e. 1830s–1850s), although there were some relatively subtle changes in temper and firing. A possible clay source is discussed, and historic records of Indian servants in the Mexican period pueblo of San Diego are explored.

After spelling out the systematicity challenge to connectionism, I examine Paul Smolensky and Géraldine Legendre's attempt to meet the challenge by appeal to a kind of architecture that they label “an integrated connectionist/symbolic architecture.” I argue that although their response to the systematicity challenge is of considerable interest, it fails to meet the challenge.

While employment regulation is clearly lagging behind the development of insecure employment practices, as Silke Bothfeld and Sigrid Betzelt's chapter indicates, social protection policy is shoring up their expansion. In reconsidering the decommodifying effects of social policy in the contemporary work-welfare nexus, the authors’ use of the concept of ‘autonomy’ provides an alternative means to establish the impact of changes in a state-citizen relations located in the rise of ‘activation’ policies, and the primacy now accorded to full labour market participation. In a cross-national European comparison, their focus is the nature and form of activation policies and how these affect individual autonomy, measured by quality, status differentiation and user participation in the process of employment-related social security reform. In their overview of labour market deregulation, changes to active labour market policies and unemployment benefit schemes, the analysis demonstrates a general decline in both the quality and security afforded by employment; a trend that is accelerated by both the policy push for maximum participation and the demise of the ‘core worker’ as a referent of standards.

Into the last third of the twentieth century Native Californians were perceived by the general public and researchers alike to be “unusually primitive.” It was thought that Spanish-born missionaries and Mexican craftsmen singlehandedly built the mission complexes and were responsible for all of the products associated with the colonial period. In the past quarter of a century scholars using an interdisciplinary approach have shown that a heretofore unexpected level of technological sophistication existed in Alta California in its missions, pueblos, and presidios. Study of ceramics using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis demonstrates a complex economy including production, supply, and exchange of these objects.

Are the features of the Scandinavian welfare states, such as redistributive income security, reflected in the activation policies introduced in order to promote and ease the integration of immigrants into the labour market? By analysing and comparing the development of activation policies for immigrants in Norway, Sweden and Denmark from the early 1990s until 2010 the chapter illustrates how it is particularly questionable when we are dealing with immigrants as the target group and the elements of activation reforms concerning income security. Despite the traditions regarding the welfare state is common in the three countries, Denmark, Norway and Sweden appear quite different on some points when immigrants as a target group is taken into account. In closing, the chapter discusses the underlying factors behind these trends and the implications for the features of the Scandinavian welfare states and immigrants as a target group.

This introductory chapter begins by outlining the research questions, the approach, and the research process and material on which it is based. The next three subsections describe a transformation of European welfare states, which is based on the guiding principles of activation and an activating welfare state and on the spread of new governance practices. Both substantive discourse and governance practices are transnational in scope and, in particular, the European Union has taken a leading role promoting this new welfare paradigm through instruments such as the European Employment Strategy. All those trends have consequences for citizenship; for example, they intervene in the gendered institutions and practices of labour markets, welfare provision, and even family life. The final subsection provides an outline of the following chapters.