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The many different imaging modes and experiment types that modern AFMs can carry out explain its popularity. They transform a high‐resolution microscope into a versatile measurements tool that can determine a very wide range of sample properties with nanometre resolution. This chapter describes the differences between the various imaging modes available, such as contact, non‐contact, and intermittent‐contact modes. The theory and practices, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of each mode are highlighted. Furthermore, non‐topographical modes, which can measure mechanical, (bio)chemical, magnetic (MFM), electrical (EFM) and thermal properties, are discussed. Techniques such as force spectroscopy allow the AFM to directly measure the force of interaction between single molecules. Other AFM techniques can even be used to modify samples, and then image the results. Examples of the use of all modes are given, to help the reader to understand their potential.

AFM, like any other measurement technique, is prone to artefacts. These can arise due to the AFM probe, the scanner, the instrument electronics, from the laboratory environment, or from many outer sources. Some artefacts are obvious to experienced users, while others are more subtle. Identifying the artefacts so that they can be explained and excluded from analysis is one of the most difficult tasks facing new AFM users. This chapter explains the origins of the artefacts that occur in AFM images, and explains what can be done to avoid them.

AFM has been applied with great success to an incredibly wide range of scientific and technological fields, and in the final chapter we present a range of applications that show the breadth and depth of the uses of AFM. In particular, the examples have been chosen to illustrate many of the different types of experiments that can be carried out by AFM, as well as a sampling of the wide range of samples that may be studied. The example applications are drawn from materials science, chemistry and physics, nanotechnology and nanoscience, biology, biophysics and biochemistry, and the use of AFM in commodity and high‐technology industries.

When two surfaces are brought into contact, they first touch where the summits of the surface asperities make contact. Consequently, surface roughness or topography strongly influences those physical phenomena associated with contact: friction, adhesion, and wear. This chapter discusses techniques for measuring the roughness of surfaces and the parameters frequently used to characterize this roughness. As atomic force microscopy (AFM) is currently the predominate tool for characterizing roughness at the small scale, this technique is discussed in some length. Also, examples are given for determining the roughness parameters: the standard deviation of surface heights, the mean radius of curvature of asperity summits, waviness, and the average and r.m.s. of surface heights.

This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the static mode and the dynamic mode. The general design and the typical method of manufacturing of the cantilevers are discussed. Two popular methods of static force detection are presented. The popular dynamic-force detection method, the tapping mode is described, especially the methods in liquids. The non-contact AFM, which has achieved atomic resolution in the weak attractive force regime, is discussed in detail. An elementary and transparent analysis of the principles, including the frequency shift, the second harmonics, and the average tunneling current, is presented. It requires only Newton's equation and Fourier analysis, and the final results are analyzed over the entire range of vibrational amplitude. The implementation is briefly discussed.

The superconducting proximity effect is based on the continuity of the pair wave function allowing pairs to flow across a specular SN boundary resulting in superconducting effects in the N region. The inversion of tunnelling data derived from two-layer NS proximity electrodes is treated based on the specular theory of Arnold. The role of Andreev scattering is explained. McMillan's model bilayer proximity model is treated. The useful simplifications of the underlying Eliashberg theory as accomplished by Eilenberger and later by Usadel are described. The spatial and superconducting phase dependences of the tunneling spectra in proximity structures as measured by le Sueur et al. are presented. The Proximity Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy (PETS) method of Arnold and Wolf is also described.

This chapter examines PIFF's ever-increasing scale and scope by considering the tenth anniversary of 2005 as the pivotal year when the festival's development took a decisive turn to reinforce its regional identity. The chapter illustrates PIFF's focus on Asian identity by investigating special events and programs associated with the tenth anniversary on critical and industrial levels. While the Asian Film Industry Network (AFIN) and the Asian Film Market (AFM) show how the festival accentuated its regional/industrial ties, special programs such as Asian Pantheon, Remapping Asian Auteur Cinema 1, and Special Screening for APEC Films reinforce PIFF's role as a critical hub for Asian cinema. Paying particular attention to a new education program (AFA), the chapter argues that PIFF's strategic arrangement of diverse audience-friendly public events reflected the festival's awareness of its changing relationship with local audiences.

When two surfaces are brought into contact, they first touch where the summits of the surface asperities make contact. Consequently, surface roughness or topography strongly influences those physical phenomena associated with contact: friction, adhesion, and wear. This chapter discusses techniques for measuring the roughness of surfaces and the parameters frequently used to characterize this roughness. As atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical interferometry are currently the predominant tools for characterizing roughness, these techniques are discussed at some length. Examples are given for determining not only the standard roughness parameters (the standard deviation of surface heights, the mean radius of curvature of asperity summits, waviness, and the average and rms of surface heights), but also for determining the surface roughness power spectrum, which has gained importance in recent tribology theories. The topography of self-affine fractal surfaces is also discussed along with the tribological importance of these surfaces.

This chapter focuses on the two experimental techniques—the surface force apparatus (SFA) and the atomic force microscope (AFM)—that are commonly used for measuring molecular level forces that act between two surfaces at small separation distances. The first part of this chapter covers the fundamental principles of SFA and AFM design. The second half of this chapter illustrates the application of AFM to measuring surface forces with examples the measurement of van der Waals forces, atomic level repulsive forces, frictional forces, electrostatic double-layer forces, and meniscus forces from liquid films and from capillary condensation.

This chapter explains that the field of domain wall (DW) nanoelectronics is predicated on the premise that the distinct physical properties of domain walls offer new conceptual possibilities for devices. It first deals with basic physics of domain wall properties, and in particular the cross-coupling that allows domain walls to display properties and order parameters different from those of the parent bulk material. The chapter then turns to scanning probe techniques for measuring some of these domain wall properties, and specifically atomic force microscopy (AFM). Together with transmission electron microscopy, AFM is one of the most important tools currently available to probe and manipulate the individual position and physical properties of domain walls. Finally, the chapter focuses on two recent developments that allow investigating hitherto overlooked properties of domain walls: their magnetotransport and their mechanical response.

In the early history of recorded music, concerns over fair compensation led to a long history of confrontation between industry and musicians. This chapter examines the case of the American Federation of Musicians’ 1942 ban on recorded music in the United States. The ban resulted from the social tensions wrought by new music-recording technology. The ban was a result of union leaders working to protect their musician and engineer members, whose livelihood they believed was under threat from music recording advances. In addition to outlining the dynamics surrounding the ban, the chapter reviews its wider implications, which include the creation of new music genres as well as the expansion of the recording industry. Although the recording industry did erode opportunities for traveling musicians, recording also resulted in the diversification of the music industry.