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This chapter describes the role of ethnography within a technical design process, as understood from an engineering perspective. It pays particular attention to the distinction between research prototypes and manufactured products, arguing that there is often little resemblance between the academic study of technology users and the pragmatics of design for global markets. Software design depends on structured accounts of social affairs, and constructs these using methods appropriated from the social sciences. However, the designed artefact itself should also be read as a craft achievement that emerges into a socio-economic context.

This chapter explores the relationships between ICTs and ‘development’, drawing in particular on the Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas, and highlighting the relationship between theory and practice, knowledge constitutive interests, and empowerment. It suggests that there are many different definitions of ‘development’, and that the hegemonic focus on ‘economic growth’ has inevitably led to greater inequality. This has been exacerbated by the rapid expansion of ICTs, which have widely been interpreted as being positive for development. There is, though, increasing recognition that whilst ICTs can indeed contribute to economic growth, they have also led to increasing inequality between those who have access to the latest technologies, and those who only have access to older ICTs or none at all. The book argues that there needs to be a refocusing on the interests of the poorest and most marginalized if ICTs are to be seen as contributing to effective development.

Technology is all too often seen as being inherently good, and there are powerful interests limiting the amount of attention paid to the darker side of ICTs and Internet access in particular. However, these darker aspects are crucial to understanding ICT4D, especially since they can more seriously impact the poor, both countries and people, than the rich. The following main challenges are covered in the chapter: privacy and security; the Surface Web and the Dark Web; cyber-security and resilience; negative aspects of the exploitation of Big Data and the abuse of people through social media; and the increasing dehumanization of people through the use of ICTs and the Internet of Things.

This concluding chapter highlights some of the most important changes that need to be made in ICT4D policies and practices if these technologies are to be used to empower poor and marginalized people and communities. These include the development of innovative pro-poor technologies, a reorientation of government policy and international agendas away from economic growth and towards the reduction of inequality, the use of effective multi-sector partnerships in support of the poorest, increased dialogue between governments and citizens with respect to security and privacy, greater attention to the creation of more resilient infrastructures, enhanced learning for all stakeholders, and a comprehensive focus on working with poor people rather than for them.