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This chapter deals with the definition, understanding and exploration of the issue of gender equality approaches that the EU has developed to promote equal opportunities between men and women. The chapter examines the different strategies used across time to implement gender equality in the EU and how this conceptualisation led to the current approach of gender mainstreaming. In particular, three phases are identified and discussedinthe chapter: equal treatment, positive action and gender mainstreaming. The last one is discussed deeply because itformed a substantial and important backbone in the context of the individual rights of citizens of the Union by creating a basis of equal rights guaranteed to all, regardless of gender. The goal pursued by gender mainstreaming approach consists of a deep change in the organizational culture of society, institutions and workplace, where gender equality should be implemented in a transformed cultural framework.

The exploration of the development of the gender mainstreaming strategy and its effect on, European legislation concerning gender equality, from its beginnings to today is the aim of this chapter.The focus is on the role of the European Union in promoting substantive equality for men and women improving legislation in the European Union context and favouring a cultural change in the gender equality perspective. Gender mainstreaming is analysed as the main legislative and cultural shift done for promoting gender equality in all European policies. Gender mainstreaming legislation requires the adoption of a gender perspective by all the central actors in the policy process and, even considering its limits and blunders, and is still the most crucial transnational strategy currently in existence that promotes gender equality in all domains of social life. The legislation enquiries raised at the beginning of the gender mainstreaming implementation process in the EU around 1996 focused on the potential role of the EU in bridging the gap between formal and substantive equality, until nowadays and most recent guidelines, are the issues of the discussion in the chapter.

The third chapter describes the changes in the main conceptualisations of gender equality and GM in relations with social and gender policies and their development over time in Europe. Is it clear that there are different potential instruments available in the gender equality perspective and the relevance of the gender mainstreaming strategy for social policies is to propose and pursue the introduction of a gender equality perspective to all policies at all levels of governance. In particular, the chapter analyseshow policies are addressing the gender mainstreaming perspective and if and how different welfare states and welfare regimes could influence the way in which gender measures and policies are implemented. The work-family issue is a field of application and verification in evaluating the degree of gender equality options within a welfare state system in a comparative way. The issue of evaluation of gender and social policies is also considered in the analysis of the gender budgeting and gender auditing strategies applied to measure the implementation and the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming.

This chapter critically examines the European Commission’s work of governing. Taking the policy programme of Gender Mainstreaming (GM) as an example, Rosalind Cavaghan shows how officials in different units within DG Research interpreted their policy work and the consequences these interpretations subsequently had on governing practices. Her starting point is to argue that existing analyses of EU gender equality policy which focus on legal norms or on formalist accounts of Europeanisation have missed important practices of interpretation. Drawing upon gender theory, Interpretive Policy Analysis and Sociology of Knowledge literatures, she argues that we cannot understand how EU GM policy really works unless we un-pack the spaces, processes and actors involved in the constant renegotiation of the EU. Overall, her findings highlight how European Commission policy is re-made and experienced through interactions between documents and persons which vary across different locations and between sub-units within the same DG. By contrast, an understanding of DG Research as a uniform space would gloss over these processes of contestation and the different mechanisms observable across them.

The introductory chapter aims at presenting the most important aspects of the book exploring the European policy strategy for gender equality, known as gender mainstreaming. The book focuses on the historical and socioeconomic changes in Europe regarding gender mainstreaming strategy and gender equality as a concept, while previous contributions focused only on specific aspects (legislation, economy, and politics).Furthermore, the connection between the institutional level of policymaking and the local implementation of European laws in the field of gender equality is an innovative issue because that was not so often connected with the topic of the gender culture of European societies or with their individual opinions/attitudes on gender roles. Lastly, the book explores innovative intersections between the fields of gender policies and survey research in order to investigate how GM policies affect regional gender cultures. In this way the issue of gender mainstreaming is observed as an ‘evergreen’ topicin the context of the changing beliefs, social structure, economics and political configuration of the European Union from the beginning till now, and with some critical points to be addressed for the future (such as economic crises, migration and integration process).

Chapter 1 defends the need for new indicators of ‘gender awareness’ within skilled immigration policy. It draws upon research from feminist industrial relations, sociology, economics and intersectional feminist studies, to this end. The chapter focuses upon three key areas of the scholarship: Gender mainstreaming processes and institutions, life course differences between men and women and gendered definitions of ‘skill’, bringing in feminist critiques of human capital theory that predominates within skilled immigration debates.

This chapter focuses on the debate about activation and gender equality at the EU level in general and within the EES in particular. It demonstrates how activation has developed as a network of concepts and meanings in the course of the EES. In particular, it traces the development of concepts, problem definitions, strategies, and priorities in its gender equality dimension. Most important, while this remains contested gender equality has been reframed from a human right to a functional requirement for full employment mainly measured in terms of male/female employment rates.

This chapter points out strength and weak elements of the gender mainstreaming strategy. On the one hand it represents one of the few attempts of installing a transnational strategy for gender equality proposing shared values and standards.Such a strategy boosted the development of a formal recognition of gender equality rights in institutions, workplaces and individual opinions. However, itentailsalso controversial aspects. For example, it still faces missteps in the conceptualisation of gender equality, with relevant consequences in the achievement of results. Furthermore, gender-equality policies have been marginalised progressively in the past decade as a result of political and institutional choices implemented at the European level and today risk being even more overlooked by the political debates at the national level. The future of gender equality depends by the awareness that establishing a legal basis for it is only the first step of a broader process that, to be effective, needs to promote a substantial cultural change within political, economic and social institutions, as well as public opinion.

The second case study focusing on the UK follows the same structure as the first one. Its first part outlines the most relevant welfare reforms and identifies their gender dimension. The second part interprets those changes in terms of shifting citizenship practices. The final section traces the different contestations behind those new practices - from the transnational level as well as from within. The study shows that the activation paradigm has been much more deeply embedded in the institutions and discourses in the UK. While some of the many measures of welfare reform have had positive consequences for the equality between women and men, an explicit gender equality agenda is not part of the larger reform project. This allowed especially previous Labour governments to adopt a role as conceptual leaders of the activation agenda at the EU level.

This is the first of three country case studies, which reconstruct the national debate about activation and transformations of citizenship. The first part outlines the most relevant welfare reforms and identifies their gender dimension. The second part interprets those changes in terms of shifting citizenship practices. The final section traces the different contestations behind those new practices - from the transnational level as well as from within. In Germany the activation paradigm has – although hotly contested – increasingly gained ground and crucially informed massive welfare reforms. At the same time, the course of this conceptual debate has been influenced by a certain mismatch between established national policy-making practices and the ‘soft’ character of the EES as well as by a relatively weak frame of gender equality in the setup up of German welfare institutions. Interestingly the German debate about gender, employment, welfare, and family policies is most controversial within the conservative camp, which encompasses traditionalists and key reformers.