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The mathematical genius Alan Turing (1912-1954) was one of the greatest scientists and thinkers of the 20th century. Now well known for his crucial wartime role in breaking the ENIGMA code, he was the first to conceive of the fundamental principle of the modern computer — the idea of controlling a computing machine's operations by means of coded instructions, stored in the machine's ‘memory’. In 1945, Turing drew up his revolutionary design for an electronic computing machine — his Automatic Computing Engine (‘ACE’). A pilot model of the ACE ran its first programme in 1950 and the production version, the ‘DEUCE’, went on to become a cornerstone of the fledgling British computer industry. The first ‘personal’ computer was based on Turing's ACE. This book describes Turing's struggle to build the modern computer. It contains first-hand accounts by Turing and by the pioneers of computing who worked with him. The book describes the hardware and software of the ACE and contains chapters describing Turing's path-breaking research in the fields of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Artificial Life (A-Life).

This book is an introduction to surgery theory, the standard algebraic topology classification method for manifolds of dimension greater than 4. It is aimed at those who have already been on a basic topology course, and would now like to understand the topology of high-dimensional manifolds. This text contains entry-level accounts of the various prerequisites of both algebra and topology. Surgery theory expresses the manifold structure set in terms of the topological K-theory of vector bundles and the algebraic L-theory of quadratic forms. While concentrating on the basic mechanics of surgery, this book includes many worked examples, useful drawings for illustration of the algebra and references for further reading.

This book is about the foundations of geometric symmetry, namely, Lie groups and differential geometry. Although this is a classical subject about which hundreds of books have been written, this book takes a new and innovative approach. The main idea is to replace the Maurer–Cartan form with absolute parallelism and its curvature. Unlike the classical approach, where the model is fixed beforehand by the Maurer–Cartan form, this new approach is model-free, and also revisits the foundational concepts of differential geometry, such as covariant differentiation, from a different perspective.

There has been a significant increase recently in activities on the interface between applied analysis and probability theory. With the potential of a combined approach to the study of various physical systems in view, this book is a collection of topical survey articles by leading researchers in both fields, working on the mathematical description of growth phenomena in the broadest sense. The main aim of the book is to foster interaction between researchers in probability and analysis, and to inspire joint efforts to attack important physical problems. Mathematical methods discussed in the book comprise large deviation theory, lace expansion, harmonic analysis, multi-scale techniques, and homogenization of partial differential equations. Models based on the physics of individual particles are discussed alongside models based on the continuum description of large collections of particles, and the mathematical theories are used to describe physical phenomena such as droplet formation, Bose–Einstein condensation, Anderson localization, Ostwald ripening, or the formation of the early universe.

The fields of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and optimal shape design (OSD) have received considerable attention in the recent past, and are of practical importance for many engineering applications. This book deals with shape optimization problems for fluids, with the equations needed for their understanding (Euler and Navier Strokes, but also those for microfluids) and with the numerical simulation of these problems. It presents the state of the art in shape optimization for an extended range of applications involving fluid flows. Automatic differentiation, approximate gradients, unstructured mesh adaptation, multi-model configurations, and time-dependent problems are introduced, and their implementation into the industrial environments of aerospace and automobile equipment industry explained and illustrated. With the increases in the power of computers in industry since the first edition of this book, methods which were previously unfeasible have begun giving results, namely evolutionary algorithms, topological optimization methods, and level set algorithms. In this edition, these methods have been treated in separate chapters, but the book remains primarily one on differential shape optimization.

This book provides an introduction to, and analysis of, the use of Bayesian nets in causal modelling. It puts forward new conceptual foundations for causal network modelling: The book argues that probability and causality need to be interpreted as epistemic notions in order for the key assumptions behind causal models to hold. Under the epistemic view, probability and causality are understood in terms of the beliefs an agent ought to adopt. The book develops an objective Bayesian notion of probability and a corresponding epistemic theory of causality. This yields a general framework for causal modelling, which is extended to cope with recursive causal relations, logically complex beliefs and changes in an agent's language.

Several recent advances in smoothing and semiparametric regression are presented in this book from a unifying, Bayesian perspective. Simulation-based full Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) inference, as well as empirical Bayes procedures closely related to penalized likelihood estimation and mixed models, are considered here. Throughout, the focus is on semiparametric regression and smoothing based on basis expansions of unknown functions and effects in combination with smoothness priors for the basis coefficients. Beginning with a review of basic methods for smoothing and mixed models, longitudinal data, spatial data, and event history data are treated in separate chapters. Worked examples from various fields such as forestry, development economics, medicine, and marketing are used to illustrate the statistical methods covered in this book. Most of these examples have been analysed using implementations in the Bayesian software, BayesX, and some with R Codes.

The Valencia International Meetings on Bayesian Statistics – established in 1979 and held every four years – have been the forum for a definitive overview of current concerns and activities in Bayesian statistics. These are the edited Proceedings of the Ninth meeting, and contain the invited papers each followed by their discussion and a rejoinder by the author(s). In the tradition of the earlier editions, this encompasses an enormous range of theoretical and applied research, highlighting the breadth, vitality and impact of Bayesian thinking in interdisciplinary research across many fields as well as the corresponding growth and vitality of core theory and methodology. The Valencia 9 invited papers cover a broad range of topics, including foundational and core theoretical issues in statistics, the continued development of new and refined computational methods for complex Bayesian modelling, substantive applications of flexible Bayesian modelling, and new developments in the theory and methodology of graphical modelling. They also describe advances in methodology for specific applied fields, including financial econometrics and portfolio decision making, public policy applications for drug surveillance, studies in the physical and environmental sciences, astronomy and astrophysics, climate change studies, molecular biosciences, statistical genetics or stochastic dynamic networks in systems biology.

The development of hierarchical models and Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques forms one of the most profound advances in Bayesian analysis since the 1970s and provides the basis for advances in virtually all areas of applied and theoretical Bayesian statistics. This book travels on a statistical journey that begins with the basic structure of Bayesian theory, and then provides details on most of the past and present advances in this field. The book honours the contributions of Sir Adrian F. M. Smith, one of the seminal Bayesian researchers, with his work on hierarchical models, sequential Monte Carlo, and Markov chain Monte Carlo and his mentoring of numerous graduate students.

A starting point of Bolzano’s logical reflection was the conviction that among truths there is a connection, according to which some truths are grounds of others, and these in turn are consequences of the former, and that such a connection is objective, i.e. subsisting independently of every cognitive activity of the subject. In the attempt to account for the distinction between subjective and objective levels of knowledge, Bolzano gradually gained the conviction that the reference of the subject to the object is mediated by a realm of entities without existence that, recalling the Stoic lectà, are here called ‘lectological’. Moreover, of the two main ways through which that reference takes place—psychic activity and linguistic activity—Bolzano favoured the first and traced back to it the problems of the second; i.e. he considered those intermediate entities first as possible content of psychic phenomena and only subordinately, on the basis of a complex theory of signs, as meanings of linguistic phenomena. This book follows this schema and treats, in great detail, first, lectological entities (ideas and propositions in themselves), second, cognitive psychic phenomena (subjective ideas and judgements), and, finally, linguistic phenomena. Moreover, it tries to bring to light the extraordinary systematic character of Bolzano’s logical thought and it does this showing that the main logical ideas developed principally in the first three parts of the Theory of Science, published in 1837, can be effortlessly formally presented within the well-known Hilbertian epsilon-calculus.

Fibonacci and Lucas sequences are “two shining stars in the vast array of integer sequences,” and because of their ubiquitousness, tendency to appear in quite unexpected and unrelated places, abundant applications, and intriguing properties, they have fascinated amateurs and mathematicians alike. However, Catalan numbers are even more fascinating. Like the North Star in the evening sky, they are a beautiful and bright light in the mathematical heavens. They continue to provide a fertile ground for number theorists, especially, Catalan enthusiasts and computer scientists. Since the publication of Euler's triangulation problem (1751) and Catalan's parenthesization problem (1838), over 400 articles and problems on Catalan numbers have appeared in various periodicals. As Martin Gardner noted, even though many amateurs and mathematicians may know the abc's of Catalan sequence, they may not be familiar with their myriad unexpected occurrences, delightful applications, properties, or the beautiful and surprising relationships among numerous examples. Like Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, Catalan numbers are also an excellent source of fun and excitement. They can be used to generate interesting dividends for students, such as intellectual curiosity, experimentation, pattern recognition, conjecturing, and problem-solving techniques. The central character in the nth Catalan number is the central binomial coefficient. So, Catalan numbers can be extracted from Pascal's triangle. In fact, there are a number of ways they can be read from Pascal's triangle; every one of them is described and exemplified. This brings Catalan numbers a step closer to number-theory enthusiasts, especially.

This book is a text and reference book on Category Theory, a branch of abstract algebra. The book contains clear definitions of the essential concepts, which are illuminated with numerous accessible examples. It provides full proofs of all the important propositions and theorems, and aims to make the basic ideas, theorems, and methods of Category Theory understandable. Although it assumes few mathematical pre-requisites, the standard of mathematical rigour is not compromised. The material covered includes the standard core of categories; functors; natural transformations; equivalence; limits and colimits; functor categories; representables; Yoneda's lemma; adjoints; and monads. An extra topic of cartesian closed categories and the lambda-calculus is also provided.

There is a need for integrated thinking about causality, probability, and mechanism in scientific methodology. A panoply of disciplines, ranging from epidemiology and biology through to econometrics and physics, routinely make use of these concepts to infer causal relationships. But each of these disciplines has developed its own methods, where causality and probability often seem to have different understandings, and where the mechanisms involved often look very different. This variegated situation raises the question of whether progress in understanding the tools of causal inference in some sciences can lead to progress in other sciences, or whether the sciences are really using different concepts. Causality and probability are long-established central concepts in the sciences, with a corresponding philosophical literature examining their problems. The philosophical literature examining the concept of mechanism, on the other hand, is more recent and there has been no clear account of how mechanisms relate to causality and probability. If we are to understand causal inference in the sciences, we need to develop some account of the relationship between causality, probability, and mechanism. This book represents a joint project by philosophers and scientists to tackle this question, and related issues, as they arise in a wide variety of disciplines across the sciences.

Sir David Cox is among the most important statisticians of the past half-century, making pioneering and highly influential contributions to a wide range of topics in statistics and applied probability. This book contains summaries of the invited talks at a meeting held at the University of Neuchâtel in July 2004 to celebrate David Cox’s 80th birthday. The chapters describe current developments across a wide range of topics, ranging from statistical theory and methods, through applied probability and modelling, to applications in areas including finance, epidemiology, hydrology, medicine, and social science. The book contains chapters by numerous well-known statisticians. It provides a summary of current thinking across a wide front by leading statistical thinkers.

Professor Dominic Welsh has made significant contributions to the fields of combinatorics and discrete probability, including matroids, complexity, and percolation. He has taught, influenced, and inspired generations of students and researchers in mathematics. This book summarizes and reviews the consistent themes from his work through a series of articles written by renowned experts. These articles, presented as chapters, contain original research work, set in a broader context by the inclusion of review material.

The history of mathematics is a well-studied and vibrant area of research, with books and scholarly articles published on various aspects of the subject. Yet, the history of combinatorics seems to have been largely overlooked. This book goes some way to redress this and serves two main purposes: it constitutes the first book-length survey of the history of combinatorics, and it assembles, for the first time in a single source, researches on the history of combinatorics that would otherwise be inaccessible to the general reader. Individual chapters have been contributed by sixteen experts. The book opens with an introduction to two thousand years of combinatorics. This is followed by seven chapters on early combinatorics, leading from Indian and Chinese writings on permutations to late-Renaissance publications on the arithmetical triangle. The next seven chapters trace the subsequent story, from Euler’s contributions to such wide-ranging topics as partitions, polyhedra, and latin squares to the 20th-century advances in combinatorial set theory, enumeration, and graph theory. The book concludes with some combinatorial reflections.

The complexity and the randomness aspect of a set of natural numbers are closely related. Traditionally, computability theory is concerned with the complexity aspect. However, computability theoretic tools can also be used to introduce mathematical counterparts for the intuitive notion of randomness of a set. Recent research shows that, conversely, concepts and methods originating from randomness enrich computability theory. The book is about these two aspects of sets of natural numbers and about their interplay. For the first aspect, lowness and highness properties of sets are introduced. For the second aspect, firstly randomness of finite objects are studied, and then randomness of sets of natural numbers. A hierarchy of mathematical randomness notions is established. Each notion matches the intuition idea of randomness to some extent. The advantages and drawbacks of notions weaker and stronger than Martin-Löf randomness are discussed. The main topic is the interplay of the computability and randomness aspects. Research on this interplay has advanced rapidly in recent years. One chapter focuses on injury-free solutions to Post's problem. A core chapter contains a comprehensible treatment of lowness properties below the halting problem, and how they relate to K triviality. Each chapter exposes how the complexity properties are related to randomness. The book also contains analogs in the area of higher computability theory of results from the preceding chapters, reflecting very recent research.

This book presents computational interaction as an approach to explaining and enhancing the interaction between humans and information technology. Computational interaction applies abstraction, automation, and analysis to inform our understanding of the structure of interaction and also to inform the design of the software that drives new and exciting human-computer interfaces. The methods of computational interaction allow, for example, designers to identify user interfaces that are optimal against some objective criteria. They also allow software engineers to build interactive systems that adapt their behaviour to better suit individual capacities and preferences. Embedded in an iterative design process, computational interaction has the potential to complement human strengths and provide methods for generating inspiring and elegant designs. Computational interaction does not exclude the messy and complicated behaviour of humans, rather it embraces it by, for example, using models that are sensitive to uncertainty and that capture subtle variations between individual users. It also promotes the idea that there are many aspects of interaction that can be augmented by algorithms. This book introduces computational interaction design to the reader by exploring a wide range of computational interaction techniques, strategies and methods. It explains how techniques such as optimisation, economic modelling, machine learning, control theory, formal methods, cognitive models and statistical language processing can be used to model interaction and design more expressive, efficient and versatile interaction.

This book examines computer aided assessment (CAA) of mathematics in which computer algebra systems (CAS) are used to automatically establish the mathematical properties of expressions provided by students in response to questions. In order to automate such assessment, the relevant criteria must be encoded. This is not so simple. Even articulating precisely the desired criteria forces the teacher to think very carefully indeed. Hence, CAA acts as a vehicle to examine assessment and mathematics education in detail and from a fresh perspective. For example, the constraints of the paper-based formats have affected what we do and why. It is natural for busy teachers to set only those questions which can be marked by hand in a straightforward way. However, there are other kinds of questions, e.g., those with non-unique correct answers, or where assessing the properties requires the marker themselves to undertake a significant computation. It is simply not sensible for a person to set these to large groups of students when marking by hand. And yet such questions have their place and value in provoking thought and learning. Furthermore, we explain how, in certain cases, these can be automatically assessed. Case studies of existing systems will illustrate this in a concrete and practical way.

How could we use living cells to perform computation? Would our definition of computation change as a consequence of this? Could such a cell-computer outperform digital computers? These are some of the questions that the study of Membrane Computing tries to answer and are at the base of what is treated by this monograph. Descriptional and computational complexity of models in Membrane Computing are the two lines of research on which is the focus here. In this context this book reports the results of only some of the models present in this framework. The models considered here represent a very relevant part of all the models introduced so far in the study of Membrane Computing. They are in between the most studied models in the field and they cover a broad range of features (using symbol objects or string objects, based only on communications, inspired by intra- and intercellular processes, having or not having a tree as underlying structure, etc.) that gives a grasp of the enormous flexibility of this framework. Links with biology and Petri nets are constant through this book. This book aims also to inspire research. This book gives suggestions for research of various levels of difficulty and this book clearly indicates their importance and the relevance of the possible outcomes. Readers new to this field of research will find the provided examples particularly useful in the understanding of the treated topics.