John J. Videler
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199299928
- eISBN:
- 9780191714924
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299928.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Ornithology
Bird flight has always intrigued mankind. This book provides an up-to-date account of the existing knowledge on the subject, offering new insights and challenges some established views. A brief ...
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Bird flight has always intrigued mankind. This book provides an up-to-date account of the existing knowledge on the subject, offering new insights and challenges some established views. A brief history of the science of flight introduces the basic physical principles governing aerial locomotion. This is followed by chapters on the flight-related functional morphology. The anatomy of the flight apparatus includes the wings, tail, and body. Treatment of the wings emphasizes the difference in shape of the arm and hand part. The structural complexity and mechanical properties of feathers receive special attention. Aerodynamic principles used by birds are explained in theory by applying Newton’s laws, and in practice by showing the direction and velocity of the flow around the arm and hand wing. The Archaeopteryx fossils remain crucial to the understanding of the evolution of bird flight despite the recent discovery of a range of well-preserved ancient birds. A novel hypothesis explaining the enigmatic details of the Archaeopteryx remains and challenges established theories regarding the origin of bird flight. Take-off, flapping flight, gliding, and landing are the basic ingredients of bird flight, and birds use a variety of flight styles from hovering to soaring. Muscles are the engines that generate the forces required to control the wings and tail, and to work during flapping motion. The energy required to fly can be estimated or measured directly, and a comparison of the empirical results, provides insights into the trend in metabolic costs of flight of birds varying in shape and mass from hummingbirds to albatrosses.Less
Bird flight has always intrigued mankind. This book provides an up-to-date account of the existing knowledge on the subject, offering new insights and challenges some established views. A brief history of the science of flight introduces the basic physical principles governing aerial locomotion. This is followed by chapters on the flight-related functional morphology. The anatomy of the flight apparatus includes the wings, tail, and body. Treatment of the wings emphasizes the difference in shape of the arm and hand part. The structural complexity and mechanical properties of feathers receive special attention. Aerodynamic principles used by birds are explained in theory by applying Newton’s laws, and in practice by showing the direction and velocity of the flow around the arm and hand wing. The Archaeopteryx fossils remain crucial to the understanding of the evolution of bird flight despite the recent discovery of a range of well-preserved ancient birds. A novel hypothesis explaining the enigmatic details of the Archaeopteryx remains and challenges established theories regarding the origin of bird flight. Take-off, flapping flight, gliding, and landing are the basic ingredients of bird flight, and birds use a variety of flight styles from hovering to soaring. Muscles are the engines that generate the forces required to control the wings and tail, and to work during flapping motion. The energy required to fly can be estimated or measured directly, and a comparison of the empirical results, provides insights into the trend in metabolic costs of flight of birds varying in shape and mass from hummingbirds to albatrosses.
Walter Herzog
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195395273
- eISBN:
- 9780199863518
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395273.003.0008
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
The control of joint movements through muscles represents a mathematically redundant problem: that is, there are more muscles than are strictly required for a given task. However, despite this ...
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The control of joint movements through muscles represents a mathematically redundant problem: that is, there are more muscles than are strictly required for a given task. However, despite this apparent redundancy, movements are performed with a stereotypical pattern of muscle activation and synergistic force sharing. Through direct measurement of multiple muscle forces in freely moving animals, this chapter demonstrates that force sharing patterns depend crucially on the mechanical properties of the muscles: the force-length and force-velocity relationships. Using optimal control theory, force sharing patterns can now be predicted confidently when the mechanical properties of the muscles and their instantaneous contractile conditions are accurately represented in the cost functions used to determine force sharing patterns. Although the mechanical properties and instantaneous contractile conditions of muscles are easy to determine in animal models of motor control, force-length and force-velocity properties for individual human skeletal muscles are still hard to obtain, and the instantaneous contractile properties of in vivo human muscle fascicles during dynamic activities can still only be obtained for a few select muscles and under highly restrictive laboratory conditions. Therefore, accurate predictions of individual muscle forces during human movements will remain a challenge for the future.Less
The control of joint movements through muscles represents a mathematically redundant problem: that is, there are more muscles than are strictly required for a given task. However, despite this apparent redundancy, movements are performed with a stereotypical pattern of muscle activation and synergistic force sharing. Through direct measurement of multiple muscle forces in freely moving animals, this chapter demonstrates that force sharing patterns depend crucially on the mechanical properties of the muscles: the force-length and force-velocity relationships. Using optimal control theory, force sharing patterns can now be predicted confidently when the mechanical properties of the muscles and their instantaneous contractile conditions are accurately represented in the cost functions used to determine force sharing patterns. Although the mechanical properties and instantaneous contractile conditions of muscles are easy to determine in animal models of motor control, force-length and force-velocity properties for individual human skeletal muscles are still hard to obtain, and the instantaneous contractile properties of in vivo human muscle fascicles during dynamic activities can still only be obtained for a few select muscles and under highly restrictive laboratory conditions. Therefore, accurate predictions of individual muscle forces during human movements will remain a challenge for the future.
Haruo Sugi (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198523970
- eISBN:
- 9780191724480
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523970.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Techniques
Despite extensive physiological, biochemical, and structural studies, the mechanisms of muscle contraction operating in living muscle fibres are still not clearly understood. This book aims to ...
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Despite extensive physiological, biochemical, and structural studies, the mechanisms of muscle contraction operating in living muscle fibres are still not clearly understood. This book aims to describe and assess various experimental methods currently used in the field of muscle research. For each method discussed, there is a comprehensive description of its advantages, problems, and limitations. Each chapter also contains a summary of the central results that have been obtained using each method.Less
Despite extensive physiological, biochemical, and structural studies, the mechanisms of muscle contraction operating in living muscle fibres are still not clearly understood. This book aims to describe and assess various experimental methods currently used in the field of muscle research. For each method discussed, there is a comprehensive description of its advantages, problems, and limitations. Each chapter also contains a summary of the central results that have been obtained using each method.
James H. Marden
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199230693
- eISBN:
- 9780191710889
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230693.003.0019
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Animal Biology
Adult dragonflies are heavily dependent on their flight muscles and flight ability for nearly all of their adult activities. This chapter reviews research that presents dragonflies as model organisms ...
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Adult dragonflies are heavily dependent on their flight muscles and flight ability for nearly all of their adult activities. This chapter reviews research that presents dragonflies as model organisms for examining mechanisms that underlie variation in flight performance within and between species, molecular mechanisms by which muscle performance is adjusted within individuals, and how these physiological traits affect territorial and mating success. Results of these studies in dragonflies have provided fundamental new knowledge that informs the theoretical bases of a number of fields: biomechanics of animal locomotion, physiological genetics, and game theory approaches to animal contests. New insights that cross the boundaries of these disparate fields demonstrate the payoff for performing integrative research.Less
Adult dragonflies are heavily dependent on their flight muscles and flight ability for nearly all of their adult activities. This chapter reviews research that presents dragonflies as model organisms for examining mechanisms that underlie variation in flight performance within and between species, molecular mechanisms by which muscle performance is adjusted within individuals, and how these physiological traits affect territorial and mating success. Results of these studies in dragonflies have provided fundamental new knowledge that informs the theoretical bases of a number of fields: biomechanics of animal locomotion, physiological genetics, and game theory approaches to animal contests. New insights that cross the boundaries of these disparate fields demonstrate the payoff for performing integrative research.
Daniel Kernell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198526551
- eISBN:
- 9780191723896
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526551.003.0002
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This is a tutorial chapter, mainly aiming to introduce the neuromuscular system. Treated items include basic aspects of skeletal muscle and peripheral axon physiology, principles of sensory and motor ...
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This is a tutorial chapter, mainly aiming to introduce the neuromuscular system. Treated items include basic aspects of skeletal muscle and peripheral axon physiology, principles of sensory and motor muscle innervation, and (very briefly) some general points concerning motor functions of the central nervous system. For muscles, items include: muscle metabolism, excitation-contraction coupling, and the mechanisms for force generation. For axons, items include: intra-axonal transport processes, membrane properties, and the mechanisms and speed of the axonal conduction of action potentials (spikes). The different motor unit and muscle fibre types of limb muscles are introduced and a brief description is given of electromyographic techniques for recording motor unit activity.Less
This is a tutorial chapter, mainly aiming to introduce the neuromuscular system. Treated items include basic aspects of skeletal muscle and peripheral axon physiology, principles of sensory and motor muscle innervation, and (very briefly) some general points concerning motor functions of the central nervous system. For muscles, items include: muscle metabolism, excitation-contraction coupling, and the mechanisms for force generation. For axons, items include: intra-axonal transport processes, membrane properties, and the mechanisms and speed of the axonal conduction of action potentials (spikes). The different motor unit and muscle fibre types of limb muscles are introduced and a brief description is given of electromyographic techniques for recording motor unit activity.
John J. Videler
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199299928
- eISBN:
- 9780191714924
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299928.003.0007
- Subject:
- Biology, Ornithology
Movements of the skeleton of a starling in flight visualized with high speed X-ray film techniques provide 3-D insight on internal wing beat dynamics. The timing of electrical activities (EMGs) of ...
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Movements of the skeleton of a starling in flight visualized with high speed X-ray film techniques provide 3-D insight on internal wing beat dynamics. The timing of electrical activities (EMGs) of the larger flight muscles in flight is presented in relation to the different phases of the wing beat cycle. The pectoralis is responsible for the downstroke of the wing and for forward rotation (pronation) of the humerus. Forces are measured directly at the insertion on the deltopectoral crest, allowing mechanical power estimates in flight at different speeds. The supracoracoideus muscle is not only involved in powering the upstroke, but also plays an important role in the backward rotation (supination) of the wings. The timing of EMG activity in tail muscles during walking and flight reveals complex kinematic patterns. The relationship with force production remains unclear. Measurements of pressure changes in the anterior air sacs reveal a complex relationship with respiration.Less
Movements of the skeleton of a starling in flight visualized with high speed X-ray film techniques provide 3-D insight on internal wing beat dynamics. The timing of electrical activities (EMGs) of the larger flight muscles in flight is presented in relation to the different phases of the wing beat cycle. The pectoralis is responsible for the downstroke of the wing and for forward rotation (pronation) of the humerus. Forces are measured directly at the insertion on the deltopectoral crest, allowing mechanical power estimates in flight at different speeds. The supracoracoideus muscle is not only involved in powering the upstroke, but also plays an important role in the backward rotation (supination) of the wings. The timing of EMG activity in tail muscles during walking and flight reveals complex kinematic patterns. The relationship with force production remains unclear. Measurements of pressure changes in the anterior air sacs reveal a complex relationship with respiration.
Lynette A. Jones and Susan J. Lederman
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195173154
- eISBN:
- 9780199786749
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195173154.003.0002
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience
This chapter considers the evolutionary development of the hand within the context of changes in the structure and function of primate hands. The differences between modern human and nonhuman primate ...
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This chapter considers the evolutionary development of the hand within the context of changes in the structure and function of primate hands. The differences between modern human and nonhuman primate hands are discussed with reference to tool use and manufacture. The anatomical structure of the human hand is reviewed in terms of the bones, joints, and muscles that comprise the hand and of the structure of the skin that overlies the palmar and dorsal surfaces. The sensory and motor innervation of the human hand is also explained. The chapter concludes with a summary of some of the biomechanical models of the hand that have been developed.Less
This chapter considers the evolutionary development of the hand within the context of changes in the structure and function of primate hands. The differences between modern human and nonhuman primate hands are discussed with reference to tool use and manufacture. The anatomical structure of the human hand is reviewed in terms of the bones, joints, and muscles that comprise the hand and of the structure of the skin that overlies the palmar and dorsal surfaces. The sensory and motor innervation of the human hand is also explained. The chapter concludes with a summary of some of the biomechanical models of the hand that have been developed.
Daniel Kernell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198526551
- eISBN:
- 9780191723896
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526551.003.0009
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
The functional properties of neurones, synapses, and muscles often change as a result of preceding use. In the short term (minutes to hours), such changes are typically rather rapidly reversible and ...
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The functional properties of neurones, synapses, and muscles often change as a result of preceding use. In the short term (minutes to hours), such changes are typically rather rapidly reversible and may be expressed as either a net increase (potentiation) or a net depression (fatigue) of input-output relations. For voluntary motor activity, such changes may take place within (e.g., central fatigue) as well as outside (e.g., peripheral fatigue) the central nervous system. In such activity, an increasing degree of muscle and/or central fatigue will be experienced as an increasing sense of effort needed for continued action. In muscle physiology a distinction is made between high- and low-frequency fatigue, and extensive studies have been performed as to the role of energy metabolism, cross-bridge interactions, excitation-contraction coupling and neuromuscular transmission. The various manners in which motoneurone properties are matched to muscle characteristics might help to counteract fatigue-related declines of motor output.Less
The functional properties of neurones, synapses, and muscles often change as a result of preceding use. In the short term (minutes to hours), such changes are typically rather rapidly reversible and may be expressed as either a net increase (potentiation) or a net depression (fatigue) of input-output relations. For voluntary motor activity, such changes may take place within (e.g., central fatigue) as well as outside (e.g., peripheral fatigue) the central nervous system. In such activity, an increasing degree of muscle and/or central fatigue will be experienced as an increasing sense of effort needed for continued action. In muscle physiology a distinction is made between high- and low-frequency fatigue, and extensive studies have been performed as to the role of energy metabolism, cross-bridge interactions, excitation-contraction coupling and neuromuscular transmission. The various manners in which motoneurone properties are matched to muscle characteristics might help to counteract fatigue-related declines of motor output.
Daniel Kernell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198526551
- eISBN:
- 9780191723896
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526551.003.0010
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This chapter is concerned with the slow processes and cellular adaptations taking place after the transection of motor axons. For axotomized motoneurones, changes occur in their morphology, membrane ...
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This chapter is concerned with the slow processes and cellular adaptations taking place after the transection of motor axons. For axotomized motoneurones, changes occur in their morphology, membrane properties, and synaptic cover. Denervated muscle fibres become atrophic and weak, their membrane properties are altered and they may become spontaneously active (fibrillation). After transection, peripheral motor axons will regenerate and, ultimately, reinnervate denervated muscle fibres that they might come across. Such reinnervation will promote a change of muscle fibre properties back toward normal. In very young mammals, but generally not in adults, regenerating peripheral axons may be (partly) capable of finding their own original target muscles. Properties of muscle fibres may change after reinnervation by types of motoneurones other than their original ones (cross-reinnervation experiments). In partially denervated muscles, collateral reinnervation may occur by sprouting of new collaterals from surviving motor axons.Less
This chapter is concerned with the slow processes and cellular adaptations taking place after the transection of motor axons. For axotomized motoneurones, changes occur in their morphology, membrane properties, and synaptic cover. Denervated muscle fibres become atrophic and weak, their membrane properties are altered and they may become spontaneously active (fibrillation). After transection, peripheral motor axons will regenerate and, ultimately, reinnervate denervated muscle fibres that they might come across. Such reinnervation will promote a change of muscle fibre properties back toward normal. In very young mammals, but generally not in adults, regenerating peripheral axons may be (partly) capable of finding their own original target muscles. Properties of muscle fibres may change after reinnervation by types of motoneurones other than their original ones (cross-reinnervation experiments). In partially denervated muscles, collateral reinnervation may occur by sprouting of new collaterals from surviving motor axons.
Daniel Kernell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198526551
- eISBN:
- 9780191723896
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526551.003.0011
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This chapter deals with long-term (weeks, months) changes in the properties of motoneurones and muscle fibres after disuse or after various patterns of enhanced activity. In voluntary motor activity ...
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This chapter deals with long-term (weeks, months) changes in the properties of motoneurones and muscle fibres after disuse or after various patterns of enhanced activity. In voluntary motor activity the optimal parameters differ between endurance training and force training. Chronic electrical stimulation of whole muscles during long times per day causes muscles to become more fatigue resistant; muscle contractions may also become slower and there are corresponding alterations in myosin composition and muscle histochemistry. Long-term effects of pulse rate on muscle speed are inconsistent and muscles may become slowed down also by physiologically fast rates. Many of the denervation-elicited changes of membrane and other muscle properties may become counteracted and reversed by chronic muscle stimulation. Also properties of motoneurones are influenced by training and by chronic stimulation of motor nerves, but less dramatically so than their muscle fibres. Changes in motoneurones include alterations of their afterhyperpolarization and other membrane properties.Less
This chapter deals with long-term (weeks, months) changes in the properties of motoneurones and muscle fibres after disuse or after various patterns of enhanced activity. In voluntary motor activity the optimal parameters differ between endurance training and force training. Chronic electrical stimulation of whole muscles during long times per day causes muscles to become more fatigue resistant; muscle contractions may also become slower and there are corresponding alterations in myosin composition and muscle histochemistry. Long-term effects of pulse rate on muscle speed are inconsistent and muscles may become slowed down also by physiologically fast rates. Many of the denervation-elicited changes of membrane and other muscle properties may become counteracted and reversed by chronic muscle stimulation. Also properties of motoneurones are influenced by training and by chronic stimulation of motor nerves, but less dramatically so than their muscle fibres. Changes in motoneurones include alterations of their afterhyperpolarization and other membrane properties.
Christopher L.-H. Huang
- Published in print:
- 1993
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198577492
- eISBN:
- 9780191724190
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198577492.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This book provides a review of developments made in the understanding of cellular activation phenomena in striated muscle. Basic physical, mathematical, and physiological principles are covered. The ...
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This book provides a review of developments made in the understanding of cellular activation phenomena in striated muscle. Basic physical, mathematical, and physiological principles are covered. The book consistently draws correlations both with cellular and molecular biological information, and their physiological consequences and significance. It is accessible both as a survey of basic concepts and as an authoritative review of recent work in the field. The book succeeds in explaining complex biophysics in such a way that the non-expert reader obtains insights into the molecular mechanisms of muscle activation and their control mechanisms, as well as in providing the expert with the detailed mathematical and experimental evidence.Less
This book provides a review of developments made in the understanding of cellular activation phenomena in striated muscle. Basic physical, mathematical, and physiological principles are covered. The book consistently draws correlations both with cellular and molecular biological information, and their physiological consequences and significance. It is accessible both as a survey of basic concepts and as an authoritative review of recent work in the field. The book succeeds in explaining complex biophysics in such a way that the non-expert reader obtains insights into the molecular mechanisms of muscle activation and their control mechanisms, as well as in providing the expert with the detailed mathematical and experimental evidence.
Daniel Kernell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198526551
- eISBN:
- 9780191723896
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526551.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This book presents a summary of knowledge concerning somatic motoneurones, the cells which link the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. There are two functional kinds of such ...
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This book presents a summary of knowledge concerning somatic motoneurones, the cells which link the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. There are two functional kinds of such motoneurones: the alpha motoneurones innervating skeletal muscle fibres and the smaller gamma motoneurones which exclusively innervate muscle fibres of complex intramuscular sense organs, the muscle spindles. This book deals primarily with the alpha motoneurones, which together constitute the main output interface of the central nervous system and without which no muscle action is possible. The study of motoneurones is important for general insights as to how neurones work, because the alpha motoneurone is probably the best understood kind of nerve cell so far in neuroscience. Motoneurones of the spinal cord were the first type of central nerve cell to be subjected to detailed physiological measurements, and much is known about how their activity is regulated by synapses from other neurones. For most of the individual neurones within the central nervous system, the precise functional tasks are difficult to define. However, for alpha motoneurones much is known about their short- and long-term interactions with their main targets, the skeletal muscle fibres. Functions of neurones must be analyzed in relation to the response properties of their target cells. Therefore, this book deals with both, summarizing classical as well as recent knowledge concerning motoneurones and their muscle fibres (i.e., motor units).Less
This book presents a summary of knowledge concerning somatic motoneurones, the cells which link the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. There are two functional kinds of such motoneurones: the alpha motoneurones innervating skeletal muscle fibres and the smaller gamma motoneurones which exclusively innervate muscle fibres of complex intramuscular sense organs, the muscle spindles. This book deals primarily with the alpha motoneurones, which together constitute the main output interface of the central nervous system and without which no muscle action is possible. The study of motoneurones is important for general insights as to how neurones work, because the alpha motoneurone is probably the best understood kind of nerve cell so far in neuroscience. Motoneurones of the spinal cord were the first type of central nerve cell to be subjected to detailed physiological measurements, and much is known about how their activity is regulated by synapses from other neurones. For most of the individual neurones within the central nervous system, the precise functional tasks are difficult to define. However, for alpha motoneurones much is known about their short- and long-term interactions with their main targets, the skeletal muscle fibres. Functions of neurones must be analyzed in relation to the response properties of their target cells. Therefore, this book deals with both, summarizing classical as well as recent knowledge concerning motoneurones and their muscle fibres (i.e., motor units).
C. J. Garland and J. A. Angus (eds)
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780192623874
- eISBN:
- 9780191724671
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192623874.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
This book provides an understanding of how events at the cellular level impact on the cardiovascular system as a whole. Advances in knowledge are highlighted and all the themes are presented from the ...
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This book provides an understanding of how events at the cellular level impact on the cardiovascular system as a whole. Advances in knowledge are highlighted and all the themes are presented from the single cell (smooth muscle endothelial and nerve) level through to the blood vessel wall to the vascular system as a functional system. This book provides an introduction to wide-ranging pharmacological principles and major techniques in this subject area, and is a source of background literature for research in vascular pharmacology.Less
This book provides an understanding of how events at the cellular level impact on the cardiovascular system as a whole. Advances in knowledge are highlighted and all the themes are presented from the single cell (smooth muscle endothelial and nerve) level through to the blood vessel wall to the vascular system as a functional system. This book provides an introduction to wide-ranging pharmacological principles and major techniques in this subject area, and is a source of background literature for research in vascular pharmacology.
Michael I. Polkey
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- November 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198530039
- eISBN:
- 9780191730450
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198530039.003.0008
- Subject:
- Palliative Care, Patient Care and End-of-Life Decision Making, Pain Management and Palliative Pharmacology
This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle ...
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This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle pump exceeds its capacity. It also occurs when respiratory muscle weakness, abnormalities in the respiratory muscle control, and irregularities in the skeletal muscle occur. The chapter begins with a discussion on the respiratory muscle in healthy individuals and then examines its contribution to breathlessness in disease. Respiratory muscle functions that may contribute to breathlessness include respiratory muscle weakness, respiratory movement disorder, COPD, and chronic heart failure (CHF). The chapter also provides a brief discussion on respiratory muscle function in cancer patients.Less
This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle pump exceeds its capacity. It also occurs when respiratory muscle weakness, abnormalities in the respiratory muscle control, and irregularities in the skeletal muscle occur. The chapter begins with a discussion on the respiratory muscle in healthy individuals and then examines its contribution to breathlessness in disease. Respiratory muscle functions that may contribute to breathlessness include respiratory muscle weakness, respiratory movement disorder, COPD, and chronic heart failure (CHF). The chapter also provides a brief discussion on respiratory muscle function in cancer patients.
Lena H. Ting and Stacie A. Chvatal
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195395273
- eISBN:
- 9780199863518
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395273.003.0005
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
This chapter examines methodologies for dimensional analysis and linear decomposition of multivariate data sets, and discusses their implicit hypotheses and interpretations for muscle coordination of ...
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This chapter examines methodologies for dimensional analysis and linear decomposition of multivariate data sets, and discusses their implicit hypotheses and interpretations for muscle coordination of movement. It presents tutorials to compare how two common methods—principal components analysis (PCA) and non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)—decompose electromyographic signals into underlying components. To facilitate the integration of such mathematical techniques with physiological hypothesis testing, the chapter focuses on developing an intuitive understanding to the two techniques. It provides a simple two-dimensional tutorial, focusing on how orthogonality constraints in PCA and non-negativity constraints in NMF impact the resulting data decomposition and physiological relevance. Examples are presented using real data sets from human balance control and locomotion. The chapter examines the structure of the resulting components, their robustness across tasks, and their implications for various muscle synergy hypotheses. The chapter addresses practical issues and caveats in organizing datasets, the selection of the appropriate number of components, and considerations and pitfalls of experimental design and analysis, as well as offering suggestions and cautions for interpreting results. Based on these comparisons and on the work in the visual system over the last decade, evidence is presented for the increased neurophysiological relevance of the factors derived from NMF compared to PCA.Less
This chapter examines methodologies for dimensional analysis and linear decomposition of multivariate data sets, and discusses their implicit hypotheses and interpretations for muscle coordination of movement. It presents tutorials to compare how two common methods—principal components analysis (PCA) and non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)—decompose electromyographic signals into underlying components. To facilitate the integration of such mathematical techniques with physiological hypothesis testing, the chapter focuses on developing an intuitive understanding to the two techniques. It provides a simple two-dimensional tutorial, focusing on how orthogonality constraints in PCA and non-negativity constraints in NMF impact the resulting data decomposition and physiological relevance. Examples are presented using real data sets from human balance control and locomotion. The chapter examines the structure of the resulting components, their robustness across tasks, and their implications for various muscle synergy hypotheses. The chapter addresses practical issues and caveats in organizing datasets, the selection of the appropriate number of components, and considerations and pitfalls of experimental design and analysis, as well as offering suggestions and cautions for interpreting results. Based on these comparisons and on the work in the visual system over the last decade, evidence is presented for the increased neurophysiological relevance of the factors derived from NMF compared to PCA.
Phillip Brown, Hugh Lauder, and David Ashton
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199731688
- eISBN:
- 9780199944125
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731688.003.0009
- Subject:
- Sociology, Occupations, Professions, and Work
This chapter shows how the neoliberal opportunity bargain of individual freedom and national prosperity was supposed to unfold. It first examines the transition from muscle power to brain power, ...
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This chapter shows how the neoliberal opportunity bargain of individual freedom and national prosperity was supposed to unfold. It first examines the transition from muscle power to brain power, which helped increase productive capacity. It then considers the relationship between nation-states based on the free trade and comparative advantage principles. Here it determines that the increase in the global knowledge economy helped remove most of the sources of conflict and disagreement between nations. The chapter also looks at the increased need for knowledge workers and the importance of keeping faith in the face of economic crashes.Less
This chapter shows how the neoliberal opportunity bargain of individual freedom and national prosperity was supposed to unfold. It first examines the transition from muscle power to brain power, which helped increase productive capacity. It then considers the relationship between nation-states based on the free trade and comparative advantage principles. Here it determines that the increase in the global knowledge economy helped remove most of the sources of conflict and disagreement between nations. The chapter also looks at the increased need for knowledge workers and the importance of keeping faith in the face of economic crashes.
Jay A. Liveson and Dong M. Ma
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195129243
- eISBN:
- 9780199847792
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195129243.003.0024
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Techniques
The strategy of the electromyographic test of muscles is based on anatomic sampling. Each muscle examined represents a specific peripheral nerve, and usually several nerve roots. Based on the ...
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The strategy of the electromyographic test of muscles is based on anatomic sampling. Each muscle examined represents a specific peripheral nerve, and usually several nerve roots. Based on the distribution of involved muscles, the examiner tries to infer the neurologic structure common to their innervation. This serves to localize the lesion. The following charts represent the innervation of the muscles of the upper and lower extremities. The myotomes are primarily based on clinical and pathologic information. An overview chart is presented first, followed by charts of one or two individual roots. The latter permit the examiner to select a group of muscles with a significant contribution from the indicated root. A major contribution is indicated by a capital X, and minor involvement by a lowercase x. Minimal involvement is signified by an x in parentheses. This same information is repeated in the second (newer) charts. The latter charts, however, include the electromyographic data, signified by capital O.Less
The strategy of the electromyographic test of muscles is based on anatomic sampling. Each muscle examined represents a specific peripheral nerve, and usually several nerve roots. Based on the distribution of involved muscles, the examiner tries to infer the neurologic structure common to their innervation. This serves to localize the lesion. The following charts represent the innervation of the muscles of the upper and lower extremities. The myotomes are primarily based on clinical and pathologic information. An overview chart is presented first, followed by charts of one or two individual roots. The latter permit the examiner to select a group of muscles with a significant contribution from the indicated root. A major contribution is indicated by a capital X, and minor involvement by a lowercase x. Minimal involvement is signified by an x in parentheses. This same information is repeated in the second (newer) charts. The latter charts, however, include the electromyographic data, signified by capital O.
Mary Coleman (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195182224
- eISBN:
- 9780199786701
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195182224.001.0001
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience
This book uses the tools of neurological analysis to address a number of major questions that have arisen in the study of autism. The answers it presents have important implications for the ...
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This book uses the tools of neurological analysis to address a number of major questions that have arisen in the study of autism. The answers it presents have important implications for the direction of future autism research, diagnosis, and treatment. What are the neurological signs and symptoms of autism? The latest information is presented in an in-depth discussion of epilepsy, cranial circumference, changes in muscle tone, stereotypies, and mutism found in children with autism. In addition, a template is provided for practitioners to follow when conducting neurological examinations of a child with autism. What are the best options for the treatment of autism? The current medical, educational, and alternative therapies are thoroughly reviewed and evaluated. Is autism reversible? The question is explored for syndromic autism, where diseases may have a transient autistic phase, and reviewed in detail for nonsyndromic autism. Is autism primarily a single disease, as originally described by Leo Kanner? Research presented here suggests that autism is, instead, a syndrome involving many disease entities. Has the incidence of autism been increasing in recent years? An historical review of autisms prevalence rates suggests that it has never been rare. What is the relationship between autism and Asperger syndrome? The latest evidence presented here sheds light on the degree to which both syndromes share more than clinical characteristics; this evidence also show some similar findings in imaging, neuropathological, and genetic studies. Which components of the brain's neural networks need to be impaired to cause the appearance of autistic symptoms? Although there are many candidate regions, dysfunction of the cerebellum and its circuits is noted to be of great interest.Less
This book uses the tools of neurological analysis to address a number of major questions that have arisen in the study of autism. The answers it presents have important implications for the direction of future autism research, diagnosis, and treatment. What are the neurological signs and symptoms of autism? The latest information is presented in an in-depth discussion of epilepsy, cranial circumference, changes in muscle tone, stereotypies, and mutism found in children with autism. In addition, a template is provided for practitioners to follow when conducting neurological examinations of a child with autism. What are the best options for the treatment of autism? The current medical, educational, and alternative therapies are thoroughly reviewed and evaluated. Is autism reversible? The question is explored for syndromic autism, where diseases may have a transient autistic phase, and reviewed in detail for nonsyndromic autism. Is autism primarily a single disease, as originally described by Leo Kanner? Research presented here suggests that autism is, instead, a syndrome involving many disease entities. Has the incidence of autism been increasing in recent years? An historical review of autisms prevalence rates suggests that it has never been rare. What is the relationship between autism and Asperger syndrome? The latest evidence presented here sheds light on the degree to which both syndromes share more than clinical characteristics; this evidence also show some similar findings in imaging, neuropathological, and genetic studies. Which components of the brain's neural networks need to be impaired to cause the appearance of autistic symptoms? Although there are many candidate regions, dysfunction of the cerebellum and its circuits is noted to be of great interest.
Jay A. Liveson and Dong M. Ma
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195129243
- eISBN:
- 9780199847792
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195129243.003.0008
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Techniques
The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve is also referred to as the lesser sciatic nerve. It originates from the S1 to S3 roots. It exits from the pelvis by passing anterior to the piriformis muscle and ...
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The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve is also referred to as the lesser sciatic nerve. It originates from the S1 to S3 roots. It exits from the pelvis by passing anterior to the piriformis muscle and posteromedial to the sciatic nerve, innervating the perineum and inferior gluteal skin. Its course is then in the muscular groove between the medial and lateral hamstring muscles. It passes distally through the popliteal fossa, innervating the posterior thigh, and extends distally, innervating the posterior calf with the lateral sural and saphenous nerves. The sacral region is difficult to evaluate. In the male, the dorsal nerve of the penis is the terminal branch of the pudendal nerve and serves as the sensory supply for most of the penis. It is also the afferent arc of the bulbocavernosus reflex entering through the S1 through S3 roots. These studies are useful in evaluating patients with abnormalities of sexual, bowel, or bladder function.Less
The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve is also referred to as the lesser sciatic nerve. It originates from the S1 to S3 roots. It exits from the pelvis by passing anterior to the piriformis muscle and posteromedial to the sciatic nerve, innervating the perineum and inferior gluteal skin. Its course is then in the muscular groove between the medial and lateral hamstring muscles. It passes distally through the popliteal fossa, innervating the posterior thigh, and extends distally, innervating the posterior calf with the lateral sural and saphenous nerves. The sacral region is difficult to evaluate. In the male, the dorsal nerve of the penis is the terminal branch of the pudendal nerve and serves as the sensory supply for most of the penis. It is also the afferent arc of the bulbocavernosus reflex entering through the S1 through S3 roots. These studies are useful in evaluating patients with abnormalities of sexual, bowel, or bladder function.
Steven L. Chown and Sue W. Nicolson
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198515494
- eISBN:
- 9780191705649
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515494.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
Flight performance in insects is inextricably linked with behavioural and physiological thermoregulation. This chapter deals especially with the evolutionary implications of insect thermoregulation ...
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Flight performance in insects is inextricably linked with behavioural and physiological thermoregulation. This chapter deals especially with the evolutionary implications of insect thermoregulation and reviews the basic mechanisms and principles, including those at the biophysical level. Wide-ranging studies are described that examine thermoregulation in bees, butterflies, and dragonflies from the level of enzyme function through to flight performance and thermal ecology. The ecological and evolutionary implications of endothermy have been strongly emphasized in recent research, an example being elegant analyses of interactions between flight pattern, morphology, palatability, and thermoregulation in Neotropical butterfly assemblages.Less
Flight performance in insects is inextricably linked with behavioural and physiological thermoregulation. This chapter deals especially with the evolutionary implications of insect thermoregulation and reviews the basic mechanisms and principles, including those at the biophysical level. Wide-ranging studies are described that examine thermoregulation in bees, butterflies, and dragonflies from the level of enzyme function through to flight performance and thermal ecology. The ecological and evolutionary implications of endothermy have been strongly emphasized in recent research, an example being elegant analyses of interactions between flight pattern, morphology, palatability, and thermoregulation in Neotropical butterfly assemblages.
