Vaclav Smil
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195168754
- eISBN:
- 9780199783601
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195168755.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This book is a systematic interdisciplinary account of two epochal trends: the history of the 20th century’s technical transformation based on the unprecedented surge of innovation that took place in ...
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This book is a systematic interdisciplinary account of two epochal trends: the history of the 20th century’s technical transformation based on the unprecedented surge of innovation that took place in Europe and North America during the three pre-WWI generation (1867-1914); and the history of new fundamental inventions during the period 1914-2000. Mass consumption of fossil fuels provided the energetic foundation of this progress. New ways of making steel — the leading metal of our civilization — and new materials including plastics and silicon, opened entirely new technical possibilities. Rationalized production, be it in agriculture or manufacturing, benefited from advancing mechanization, automation, and robotization. New epochal inventions included the discovery of nuclear fission, followed by the rapid development of nuclear weapons and commercial generation of nuclear electricity; the discovery of gas turbines (and their use in jet airplanes as well as in stationary applications); and the invention of solid-state electronics based on semiconductors used to make transistors, integrated circuits, and microprocessors, the key components of modern computing. The new economy based on unprecedented levels of energy consumption brought not only mass consumption and higher quality of life, but also some worrisome social problems and environmental changes; its prospects remain uncertain.Less
This book is a systematic interdisciplinary account of two epochal trends: the history of the 20th century’s technical transformation based on the unprecedented surge of innovation that took place in Europe and North America during the three pre-WWI generation (1867-1914); and the history of new fundamental inventions during the period 1914-2000. Mass consumption of fossil fuels provided the energetic foundation of this progress. New ways of making steel — the leading metal of our civilization — and new materials including plastics and silicon, opened entirely new technical possibilities. Rationalized production, be it in agriculture or manufacturing, benefited from advancing mechanization, automation, and robotization. New epochal inventions included the discovery of nuclear fission, followed by the rapid development of nuclear weapons and commercial generation of nuclear electricity; the discovery of gas turbines (and their use in jet airplanes as well as in stationary applications); and the invention of solid-state electronics based on semiconductors used to make transistors, integrated circuits, and microprocessors, the key components of modern computing. The new economy based on unprecedented levels of energy consumption brought not only mass consumption and higher quality of life, but also some worrisome social problems and environmental changes; its prospects remain uncertain.
Vaclav Smil
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195168754
- eISBN:
- 9780199783601
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195168755.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
Our civilization is based on massive consumption of fossil fuels. This chapter begins by examining technical advances of energy industries, before turning to energy transitions and the process of ...
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Our civilization is based on massive consumption of fossil fuels. This chapter begins by examining technical advances of energy industries, before turning to energy transitions and the process of decarbonization of global energy supply. The second section deals with electricity production in general, and with nuclear generation (as well as nuclear weapons) in particular. The last section traces the invention and deployment of the only two new prime movers introduced during the 20th century: gas turbines and rocket engines.Less
Our civilization is based on massive consumption of fossil fuels. This chapter begins by examining technical advances of energy industries, before turning to energy transitions and the process of decarbonization of global energy supply. The second section deals with electricity production in general, and with nuclear generation (as well as nuclear weapons) in particular. The last section traces the invention and deployment of the only two new prime movers introduced during the 20th century: gas turbines and rocket engines.
Stephen Tindale and Chris Hewett
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198294894
- eISBN:
- 9780191599064
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198294891.003.0010
- Subject:
- Political Science, Environmental Politics
Stephen Tindale and Chris Hewett analyse one of the most‐discussed policy tools available to politicians for moving towards sustainability: environmental taxation. Such taxation is usually regarded ...
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Stephen Tindale and Chris Hewett analyse one of the most‐discussed policy tools available to politicians for moving towards sustainability: environmental taxation. Such taxation is usually regarded as regressive and therefore socially unjust – one reason sustainability and justice are sometimes regarded as pulling in opposite directions. Tindale and Hewett argue against this assumption via an examination of domestic fuel and transport taxes, showing how environmental taxation can be made progressive with careful design and attention to surrounding fiscal conditions. They also say that the greatest cause of poverty is unemployment, and that a package of measures to stimulate environmental industries would do much to bring sustainability and justice into alignment.Less
Stephen Tindale and Chris Hewett analyse one of the most‐discussed policy tools available to politicians for moving towards sustainability: environmental taxation. Such taxation is usually regarded as regressive and therefore socially unjust – one reason sustainability and justice are sometimes regarded as pulling in opposite directions. Tindale and Hewett argue against this assumption via an examination of domestic fuel and transport taxes, showing how environmental taxation can be made progressive with careful design and attention to surrounding fiscal conditions. They also say that the greatest cause of poverty is unemployment, and that a package of measures to stimulate environmental industries would do much to bring sustainability and justice into alignment.
Vaclav Smil
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780262035774
- eISBN:
- 9780262338301
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262035774.001.0001
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Environmental Studies
Energy is the only universal currency; it is necessary for getting anything done. The conversion of energy on Earth ranges from terra-forming forces of plate tectonics to cumulative erosive effects ...
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Energy is the only universal currency; it is necessary for getting anything done. The conversion of energy on Earth ranges from terra-forming forces of plate tectonics to cumulative erosive effects of raindrops. Life on Earth depends on the photosynthetic conversion of solar energy into plant biomass. Humans have come to rely on many more energy flows—ranging from fossil fuels to photovoltaic generation of electricity—for their civilized existence. This book provides a comprehensive account of how energy has shaped society, from pre-agricultural foraging societies through today’s fossil fuel-driven civilization. Humans are the only species that can systematically harness energies outside their bodies, using the power of their intellect and an enormous variety of artifacts—from the simplest tools to internal combustion engines and nuclear reactors. The epochal transition to fossil fuels affected everything: agriculture, industry, transportation, weapons, communication, economics, urbanization, quality of life, politics, and the environment. This book describes humanity’s energy eras in panoramic and interdisciplinary fashion, offering readers a magisterial overview.Less
Energy is the only universal currency; it is necessary for getting anything done. The conversion of energy on Earth ranges from terra-forming forces of plate tectonics to cumulative erosive effects of raindrops. Life on Earth depends on the photosynthetic conversion of solar energy into plant biomass. Humans have come to rely on many more energy flows—ranging from fossil fuels to photovoltaic generation of electricity—for their civilized existence. This book provides a comprehensive account of how energy has shaped society, from pre-agricultural foraging societies through today’s fossil fuel-driven civilization. Humans are the only species that can systematically harness energies outside their bodies, using the power of their intellect and an enormous variety of artifacts—from the simplest tools to internal combustion engines and nuclear reactors. The epochal transition to fossil fuels affected everything: agriculture, industry, transportation, weapons, communication, economics, urbanization, quality of life, politics, and the environment. This book describes humanity’s energy eras in panoramic and interdisciplinary fashion, offering readers a magisterial overview.
John R. B. Lighton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195310610
- eISBN:
- 9780199871414
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195310610.003.0014
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Biotechnology
All analyzers have strengths and limitations that vary with the technology used, and directly affect their suitability for different types of metabolic rate measurement. This chapter discusses the ...
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All analyzers have strengths and limitations that vary with the technology used, and directly affect their suitability for different types of metabolic rate measurement. This chapter discusses the chief technologies utilized in aerial gas analyzers, and their advantages, disadvantages, and operating characteristics. For oxygen analyzers, the single channel and differential heated zirconia cell, single channel and differential fuel cell, and paramagnetic types are described. For carbon dioxide analyzers, the single-wavelength and dual-wavelength non-dispersive infrared types are discussed. For water vapor analyzers, the chilled-mirror and capacitive types are considered.Less
All analyzers have strengths and limitations that vary with the technology used, and directly affect their suitability for different types of metabolic rate measurement. This chapter discusses the chief technologies utilized in aerial gas analyzers, and their advantages, disadvantages, and operating characteristics. For oxygen analyzers, the single channel and differential heated zirconia cell, single channel and differential fuel cell, and paramagnetic types are described. For carbon dioxide analyzers, the single-wavelength and dual-wavelength non-dispersive infrared types are discussed. For water vapor analyzers, the chilled-mirror and capacitive types are considered.
Stefano Atzeni and JÜrgen Meyer-Ter-Vehn
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198562641
- eISBN:
- 9780191714030
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198562641.003.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Nuclear and Plasma Physics
This chapter discusses nuclear fusion reactions. The concepts of reaction cross-section and of Maxwell-averaged reactivity are defined, and the standard parametrization of these two important ...
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This chapter discusses nuclear fusion reactions. The concepts of reaction cross-section and of Maxwell-averaged reactivity are defined, and the standard parametrization of these two important quantities are presented and discussed qualitatively. A simplified analytical treatment of the barrier penetration is also described. The Gamow form of the Maxwellian reactivity is derived. A few fusion reactions of interest to energy production and to astrophysics are discussed. These include the deuterium-tritium reaction, other deuterium reactions, the p-p and CNO stellar cycles, and those occurring in the so-called advanced fusion fuels. Analytical expressions, fits, data, and graphs for the evaluation of their cross-sections and reactivities are provided. The last part of the chapter briefly discusses how strong material compression and spin polarization affect fusion reactivities. The principles of muon-catalysed fusion are also outlined.Less
This chapter discusses nuclear fusion reactions. The concepts of reaction cross-section and of Maxwell-averaged reactivity are defined, and the standard parametrization of these two important quantities are presented and discussed qualitatively. A simplified analytical treatment of the barrier penetration is also described. The Gamow form of the Maxwellian reactivity is derived. A few fusion reactions of interest to energy production and to astrophysics are discussed. These include the deuterium-tritium reaction, other deuterium reactions, the p-p and CNO stellar cycles, and those occurring in the so-called advanced fusion fuels. Analytical expressions, fits, data, and graphs for the evaluation of their cross-sections and reactivities are provided. The last part of the chapter briefly discusses how strong material compression and spin polarization affect fusion reactivities. The principles of muon-catalysed fusion are also outlined.
Nils Ringe
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199572557
- eISBN:
- 9780191722431
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199572557.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics, European Union
Chapter 5 examines the role of focal points as mechanisms of information provision by analyzing a series of legislative proposals as case studies. It draws on interviews with EU officials and the ...
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Chapter 5 examines the role of focal points as mechanisms of information provision by analyzing a series of legislative proposals as case studies. It draws on interviews with EU officials and the statistical analysis of individual final votes on the EP floor. This chapter illustrates how focal points shape EP policy-making processes and outcomes. While Chapter 3 demonstrates that the policy positions of expert legislators determine the positions of their nonexpert colleagues on the EP floor, Chapter 5 shows how this process takes place for invested nonexpert legislators. The legislative proposals analyzed concern EU takeover legislation, the statute and financing of EU-level political parties, proposals on fuel quality and motor vehicle emissions, liability for environmental damage, the liberalization of port services in the EU, and EU citizenship and the free movement of people.Less
Chapter 5 examines the role of focal points as mechanisms of information provision by analyzing a series of legislative proposals as case studies. It draws on interviews with EU officials and the statistical analysis of individual final votes on the EP floor. This chapter illustrates how focal points shape EP policy-making processes and outcomes. While Chapter 3 demonstrates that the policy positions of expert legislators determine the positions of their nonexpert colleagues on the EP floor, Chapter 5 shows how this process takes place for invested nonexpert legislators. The legislative proposals analyzed concern EU takeover legislation, the statute and financing of EU-level political parties, proposals on fuel quality and motor vehicle emissions, liability for environmental damage, the liberalization of port services in the EU, and EU citizenship and the free movement of people.
Robin I.M. Dunbar
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780197264980
- eISBN:
- 9780191754135
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264980.003.0003
- Subject:
- Sociology, Health, Illness, and Medicine
The brain consumes about 20 per cent of the total energy intake in human adults. Primates, and especially humans, have unusually large brains for body size compared with other vertebrates, and ...
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The brain consumes about 20 per cent of the total energy intake in human adults. Primates, and especially humans, have unusually large brains for body size compared with other vertebrates, and fuelling these is a significant drain on both time and energy. Larger-brained primates generally eat fruit-intense diets, but human brains are so large that a reduction in gut size is needed to free up sufficient resources to allow a larger brain to be evolved, placing further pressure on foraging. The early invention of cooking increased nutrient absorption by around 30 per cent over raw food. Increasing digestibility in this way perhaps inevitably leads to risk of obesity when food is super-abundant, as it is in post-industrial societies. However, obesity has clearly been around for a long time, as suggested by the late Palaeolithic Venus figures of Europe, so it is not a novel problem.Less
The brain consumes about 20 per cent of the total energy intake in human adults. Primates, and especially humans, have unusually large brains for body size compared with other vertebrates, and fuelling these is a significant drain on both time and energy. Larger-brained primates generally eat fruit-intense diets, but human brains are so large that a reduction in gut size is needed to free up sufficient resources to allow a larger brain to be evolved, placing further pressure on foraging. The early invention of cooking increased nutrient absorption by around 30 per cent over raw food. Increasing digestibility in this way perhaps inevitably leads to risk of obesity when food is super-abundant, as it is in post-industrial societies. However, obesity has clearly been around for a long time, as suggested by the late Palaeolithic Venus figures of Europe, so it is not a novel problem.
Gerard P. Smith (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195105155
- eISBN:
- 9780199848263
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195105155.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
What is it that stops the process of eating? This book succeeds in answering comprehensively this deceptively simple question, while incorporating the latest scientific research. Unless we stop ...
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What is it that stops the process of eating? This book succeeds in answering comprehensively this deceptively simple question, while incorporating the latest scientific research. Unless we stop eating by choice—for medical or social reasons—an unconscious physiological process is triggered through negative feedback from ingested food as it travels from the mouth through the stomach and on to the small intestine. This process is called satiation. Recent scientific evidence has revealed that food stimuli activate this process before the actual absorption of digested food, which significantly changes the traditional perspective that satiation, depends on the post-absorptive repletion of metabolic fuels. This book presents the first detailed account of the neurobiological mechanisms of satiation. The ten chapters of the book detail the neural, endocrine, and cellular underpinnings of the process. Chapters discuss different aspects of satiation and present a critical overview of recent advances and current problems in this field. The inclusion of a chapter on the satiation of alcohol is unique in a book on food intake, and shows the convergence of ideas on satiation in these two areas.Less
What is it that stops the process of eating? This book succeeds in answering comprehensively this deceptively simple question, while incorporating the latest scientific research. Unless we stop eating by choice—for medical or social reasons—an unconscious physiological process is triggered through negative feedback from ingested food as it travels from the mouth through the stomach and on to the small intestine. This process is called satiation. Recent scientific evidence has revealed that food stimuli activate this process before the actual absorption of digested food, which significantly changes the traditional perspective that satiation, depends on the post-absorptive repletion of metabolic fuels. This book presents the first detailed account of the neurobiological mechanisms of satiation. The ten chapters of the book detail the neural, endocrine, and cellular underpinnings of the process. Chapters discuss different aspects of satiation and present a critical overview of recent advances and current problems in this field. The inclusion of a chapter on the satiation of alcohol is unique in a book on food intake, and shows the convergence of ideas on satiation in these two areas.
David Michael Newbery
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- October 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780199278596
- eISBN:
- 9780191602856
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199278598.003.0007
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Financial Economics
Designing an efficient set of road user taxes and charges involves charging for scarce road space, setting corrective taxes for environmental externalities, and possibly employing additional taxes to ...
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Designing an efficient set of road user taxes and charges involves charging for scarce road space, setting corrective taxes for environmental externalities, and possibly employing additional taxes to improve the overall efficiency and equity of the tax system. As illustrated with data from the UK, congestion costs comprise the largest part of the efficient road user charge, with road damage costs and externalities a relatively small part. The best approach to internalising congestion costs is a cordon toll, although its efficient design turns out to be very complex. Road fuel taxes should probably be set at a level that accounts for the average long-run marginal cost of inter-urban roads for typical cars, with the vehicle excise duty set to adjust total payments by type of vehicle. Furthermore, the external cost of emissions of greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, and particulates can be reduced through tailpipe emission standards as well as met by differentially higher excises on, say, leaded than on unleaded petrol. An ad valorem tax on the component of car insurance that covers accident costs would internalise accident externalities. The study calculates the pure road charge and green tax elements in the UK at 0.60 euros/litre for petrol and 0.67 euros for diesel. If this applied generally across the EU, the Netherlands and Germany would be charging petrol at about the right rate and only the UK would be overcharging it. All countries except the UK are probably undercharging diesel. Overall, a strong argument can be made for revenue-neutral adjustments in total revenue from road use to improve efficiency by shifting over to better-targeted congestion taxes, such as cordon tolls and road pricing.Less
Designing an efficient set of road user taxes and charges involves charging for scarce road space, setting corrective taxes for environmental externalities, and possibly employing additional taxes to improve the overall efficiency and equity of the tax system. As illustrated with data from the UK, congestion costs comprise the largest part of the efficient road user charge, with road damage costs and externalities a relatively small part. The best approach to internalising congestion costs is a cordon toll, although its efficient design turns out to be very complex. Road fuel taxes should probably be set at a level that accounts for the average long-run marginal cost of inter-urban roads for typical cars, with the vehicle excise duty set to adjust total payments by type of vehicle. Furthermore, the external cost of emissions of greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, and particulates can be reduced through tailpipe emission standards as well as met by differentially higher excises on, say, leaded than on unleaded petrol. An ad valorem tax on the component of car insurance that covers accident costs would internalise accident externalities. The study calculates the pure road charge and green tax elements in the UK at 0.60 euros/litre for petrol and 0.67 euros for diesel. If this applied generally across the EU, the Netherlands and Germany would be charging petrol at about the right rate and only the UK would be overcharging it. All countries except the UK are probably undercharging diesel. Overall, a strong argument can be made for revenue-neutral adjustments in total revenue from road use to improve efficiency by shifting over to better-targeted congestion taxes, such as cordon tolls and road pricing.
