Richard Swinburne (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780197264898
- eISBN:
- 9780191754074
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264898.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
Do humans have a free choice of which actions to perform? Three recent developments of modern science can help us to answer this question. First, new investigative tools have enabled us to study the ...
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Do humans have a free choice of which actions to perform? Three recent developments of modern science can help us to answer this question. First, new investigative tools have enabled us to study the processes in our brains which accompanying our decisions. The pioneer work of Benjamin Libet has led many neuroscientists to hold the view that our conscious intentions do not cause our bodily movements but merely accompany them. Then, Quantum Theory suggests that not all physical events are fully determined by their causes, and so opens the possibility that not all brain events may be fully determined by their causes, and so maybe — if neuroscience does not rule this out — there is a role for intentions after all. Finally, a theorem of mathematics, Gödel's theory, has been interpreted to suggest that the initial conditions and laws of development of a mathematician's brain could not fully determine which mathematical conjectures he sees to be true. The extent to which human behaviour is determined by brain events may well depend on whether conscious events, such as intentions, are themselves merely brain events, or whether they are separate events which interact with brain events (perhaps in the radical form that intentions are events in our soul, and not in our body). This book considers what kind of free will we need in order to be morally responsible for our actions or be held guilty in a court of law. Is it sufficient merely that our actions are uncaused by brain events?Less
Do humans have a free choice of which actions to perform? Three recent developments of modern science can help us to answer this question. First, new investigative tools have enabled us to study the processes in our brains which accompanying our decisions. The pioneer work of Benjamin Libet has led many neuroscientists to hold the view that our conscious intentions do not cause our bodily movements but merely accompany them. Then, Quantum Theory suggests that not all physical events are fully determined by their causes, and so opens the possibility that not all brain events may be fully determined by their causes, and so maybe — if neuroscience does not rule this out — there is a role for intentions after all. Finally, a theorem of mathematics, Gödel's theory, has been interpreted to suggest that the initial conditions and laws of development of a mathematician's brain could not fully determine which mathematical conjectures he sees to be true. The extent to which human behaviour is determined by brain events may well depend on whether conscious events, such as intentions, are themselves merely brain events, or whether they are separate events which interact with brain events (perhaps in the radical form that intentions are events in our soul, and not in our body). This book considers what kind of free will we need in order to be morally responsible for our actions or be held guilty in a court of law. Is it sufficient merely that our actions are uncaused by brain events?
SWINBURNE RICHARD
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780197264898
- eISBN:
- 9780191754074
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264898.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
The theme of this volume is the extent to which humans have a free choice of which actions to perform, and what kind of free choice would make them morally responsible for their actions. This ...
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The theme of this volume is the extent to which humans have a free choice of which actions to perform, and what kind of free choice would make them morally responsible for their actions. This introductory chapter provides an overview of the contributions to this volume.Less
The theme of this volume is the extent to which humans have a free choice of which actions to perform, and what kind of free choice would make them morally responsible for their actions. This introductory chapter provides an overview of the contributions to this volume.
Simon Harrison
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198269847
- eISBN:
- 9780191713385
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269847.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
Augustine is a pivotal figure in the history of the concept of will, but what is his ‘theory of will’? This book investigates Augustine’s use of ‘will’ in one particular context, his dialogue On Free ...
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Augustine is a pivotal figure in the history of the concept of will, but what is his ‘theory of will’? This book investigates Augustine’s use of ‘will’ in one particular context, his dialogue On Free Choice of the Will, taking seriously its historical and philosophical form. First, it finds that the dialogical nature of On Free Choice of the Will has been missed, as exemplified by the unhistorical and misleading modern attributions of names to the speakers. Secondly, the commonplace that Augustine changed his mind in the course of its composition is shown to be unfounded, and a case is made for its argumentative coherence. Thirdly, it is shown that it is the form and structure of On Free Choice of the Will that give philosophical content to Augustine’s theory of will. The dialogue constitutes a ‘way in to the will’ that itself instantiates a concept of will. At the heart of this structure is a particular argument that depends on an appeal to a first-person perspective, which ties the vocabulary of will to a concept of freedom and responsibility. This appeal is significantly similar to other arguments deployed by Augustine which are significantly similar to Descartes’ ‘cogito ergo sum’, ‘I think therefore I am’. The book goes on to investigate how Augustine’s ‘way in’ relates to these cogito-like arguments as they occur in Augustine’s major and most read works, the Confessions, the City of God, and On the Trinity. The relationship of Augustine’s to Descartes’ ‘cogito’ is also discussed. Augustine elucidates, within a particular Platonic theory of knowledge, a ‘theory of will’ that is grounded in a ‘way in’, which takes the conditions and limits of knowledge seriously.Less
Augustine is a pivotal figure in the history of the concept of will, but what is his ‘theory of will’? This book investigates Augustine’s use of ‘will’ in one particular context, his dialogue On Free Choice of the Will, taking seriously its historical and philosophical form. First, it finds that the dialogical nature of On Free Choice of the Will has been missed, as exemplified by the unhistorical and misleading modern attributions of names to the speakers. Secondly, the commonplace that Augustine changed his mind in the course of its composition is shown to be unfounded, and a case is made for its argumentative coherence. Thirdly, it is shown that it is the form and structure of On Free Choice of the Will that give philosophical content to Augustine’s theory of will. The dialogue constitutes a ‘way in to the will’ that itself instantiates a concept of will. At the heart of this structure is a particular argument that depends on an appeal to a first-person perspective, which ties the vocabulary of will to a concept of freedom and responsibility. This appeal is significantly similar to other arguments deployed by Augustine which are significantly similar to Descartes’ ‘cogito ergo sum’, ‘I think therefore I am’. The book goes on to investigate how Augustine’s ‘way in’ relates to these cogito-like arguments as they occur in Augustine’s major and most read works, the Confessions, the City of God, and On the Trinity. The relationship of Augustine’s to Descartes’ ‘cogito’ is also discussed. Augustine elucidates, within a particular Platonic theory of knowledge, a ‘theory of will’ that is grounded in a ‘way in’, which takes the conditions and limits of knowledge seriously.
Gregory Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? ...
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If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? Initially, Philipp Melanchthon concurred with Martin Luther—that the human will is completely bound by sin, and that the choice of faith can flow only from God's unilateral grace. But if this is so, what about those whom God has not chosen? Is he not casting people into hell who never even had a chance? What are the pastoral implications for believers thinking about the nature of God and their own relationship to him? As a result of practical concerns such as these, aided by an intellectual aversion to paradox, Melanchthon came to believe that the human will does play a key role in the origins of a saving faith in Jesus Christ. This was not the Roman Catholic free will of Erasmus, however. It was a limited free will tied to justification by faith alone. It was an evangelical free will.Less
If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? Initially, Philipp Melanchthon concurred with Martin Luther—that the human will is completely bound by sin, and that the choice of faith can flow only from God's unilateral grace. But if this is so, what about those whom God has not chosen? Is he not casting people into hell who never even had a chance? What are the pastoral implications for believers thinking about the nature of God and their own relationship to him? As a result of practical concerns such as these, aided by an intellectual aversion to paradox, Melanchthon came to believe that the human will does play a key role in the origins of a saving faith in Jesus Christ. This was not the Roman Catholic free will of Erasmus, however. It was a limited free will tied to justification by faith alone. It was an evangelical free will.
Isaiah Berlin
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199249893
- eISBN:
- 9780191598807
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019924989X.003.0003
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
Berlin’s position in ‘Political Ideas’ postulated a human ability to make free choices. His lecture ‘Historical Inevitability’ attacked determinism as a foundation of the view that ‘the world has a ...
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Berlin’s position in ‘Political Ideas’ postulated a human ability to make free choices. His lecture ‘Historical Inevitability’ attacked determinism as a foundation of the view that ‘the world has a direction’ and that society is governed by deterministic laws. Instead, Berlin suggested that determinism was implausible, because it would require radical changes in our ‘moral and psychological categories.’Less
Berlin’s position in ‘Political Ideas’ postulated a human ability to make free choices. His lecture ‘Historical Inevitability’ attacked determinism as a foundation of the view that ‘the world has a direction’ and that society is governed by deterministic laws. Instead, Berlin suggested that determinism was implausible, because it would require radical changes in our ‘moral and psychological categories.’
Richard McCarty
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199567720
- eISBN:
- 9780191721465
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199567720.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, History of Philosophy
The assumption that actions are explained by motive forces implies the doctrine of psychological determinism; and many doubt that Kant accepted that doctrine. This chapter argues that he did, and ...
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The assumption that actions are explained by motive forces implies the doctrine of psychological determinism; and many doubt that Kant accepted that doctrine. This chapter argues that he did, and disputes textual evidence usually cited to prove otherwise, such as the so-called “incorporation thesis”. It argues further that the problem of justification and explanation cannot be solved without the assumption of psychological determinism. The so-called “power of free choice” (Willkür) is neither capable of explaining action, nor is it the way Kant assumed that our actions are explained.Less
The assumption that actions are explained by motive forces implies the doctrine of psychological determinism; and many doubt that Kant accepted that doctrine. This chapter argues that he did, and disputes textual evidence usually cited to prove otherwise, such as the so-called “incorporation thesis”. It argues further that the problem of justification and explanation cannot be solved without the assumption of psychological determinism. The so-called “power of free choice” (Willkür) is neither capable of explaining action, nor is it the way Kant assumed that our actions are explained.
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0009
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify ...
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In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify his new doctrinal system. Of particular significance was his redefinition of predestination not as God's election of individuals, but as God's corporate election of the church as body—a body which individuals could freely join or leave through the choice of faith in Christ. Meanwhile, at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church affirmed a transformational model of justification similar to that which Erasmus had advocated.Less
In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify his new doctrinal system. Of particular significance was his redefinition of predestination not as God's election of individuals, but as God's corporate election of the church as body—a body which individuals could freely join or leave through the choice of faith in Christ. Meanwhile, at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church affirmed a transformational model of justification similar to that which Erasmus had advocated.
Simon Harrison
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198269847
- eISBN:
- 9780191713385
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269847.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
This chapter sets out a positive case for regarding On Free Choice as a text to be read as a coherent and consistent whole. On Free Choice is a single unified piece of work. The case for reading it ...
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This chapter sets out a positive case for regarding On Free Choice as a text to be read as a coherent and consistent whole. On Free Choice is a single unified piece of work. The case for reading it as such is one of elucidating something that is self-evident; it is a dialogue. The manuscript evidence and what is known of ancient literary practice suggests that the interlocutors should not be identified as ‘Augustine’ and ‘Evodius’, an identification that has obscured the significance of the role of the reader as part of the argumentative strategy of the work as a whole. It consists of three books, the argument, subject matter, and style of which are developed in a programmatic and interrelated progression. This progression is illustrated in the deployment of some technical theological terms and the overall architecture of the argument.Less
This chapter sets out a positive case for regarding On Free Choice as a text to be read as a coherent and consistent whole. On Free Choice is a single unified piece of work. The case for reading it as such is one of elucidating something that is self-evident; it is a dialogue. The manuscript evidence and what is known of ancient literary practice suggests that the interlocutors should not be identified as ‘Augustine’ and ‘Evodius’, an identification that has obscured the significance of the role of the reader as part of the argumentative strategy of the work as a whole. It consists of three books, the argument, subject matter, and style of which are developed in a programmatic and interrelated progression. This progression is illustrated in the deployment of some technical theological terms and the overall architecture of the argument.
Richard Swinburne
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199271672
- eISBN:
- 9780191709357
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.003.0007
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Religion
Evidence e renders a hypothesis h more probable in so far as both the prior probability of h is high and so is its explanatory power (that is it predictive power which is the probability of the ...
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Evidence e renders a hypothesis h more probable in so far as both the prior probability of h is high and so is its explanatory power (that is it predictive power which is the probability of the evidence given the hypothesis, divided by the prior probability of the evidence). There cannot be a best of all possible worlds; but in virtue of his perfect goodness, God will bring about a very good world. A world containing ‘humanly free persons’, such as humans, with a free choice to bring about limited good or evil would contain a kind of goodness not possessed by any other world, and so it is quite probable that God would bring about such a world. Persons of this kind need to be embodied.Less
Evidence e renders a hypothesis h more probable in so far as both the prior probability of h is high and so is its explanatory power (that is it predictive power which is the probability of the evidence given the hypothesis, divided by the prior probability of the evidence). There cannot be a best of all possible worlds; but in virtue of his perfect goodness, God will bring about a very good world. A world containing ‘humanly free persons’, such as humans, with a free choice to bring about limited good or evil would contain a kind of goodness not possessed by any other world, and so it is quite probable that God would bring about such a world. Persons of this kind need to be embodied.
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
The Wittenberg Unrest of 1521–2 caused Melanchthon to emphasize civil freedom, although he still maintained the spiritual bondage of the will. This new emphasis occurred in tandem with the ...
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The Wittenberg Unrest of 1521–2 caused Melanchthon to emphasize civil freedom, although he still maintained the spiritual bondage of the will. This new emphasis occurred in tandem with the development of Luther's political theology of various dualities in reality. Meanwhile, Melanchthon strongly sided with Luther in his dispute with Erasmus over the freedom of the will.Less
The Wittenberg Unrest of 1521–2 caused Melanchthon to emphasize civil freedom, although he still maintained the spiritual bondage of the will. This new emphasis occurred in tandem with the development of Luther's political theology of various dualities in reality. Meanwhile, Melanchthon strongly sided with Luther in his dispute with Erasmus over the freedom of the will.
Simon Harrison
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198269847
- eISBN:
- 9780191713385
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269847.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
This chapter discusses the evidence for the claim that On Free Choice is internally inconsistent because Augustine changed his mind in the course of writing it. These are: Augustine’s account of its ...
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This chapter discusses the evidence for the claim that On Free Choice is internally inconsistent because Augustine changed his mind in the course of writing it. These are: Augustine’s account of its composition in the Retractations; the perceived change from an optimistic, classical emphasis on the ‘facilitas’ (easiness) of doing good in book one to a pessimistic, Pauline account of the ‘difficultas’ (difficulty, impossibility) of doing good in book three; and the use of On Free Choice by Augustine and his opponents in the later Pelagian controversy.Less
This chapter discusses the evidence for the claim that On Free Choice is internally inconsistent because Augustine changed his mind in the course of writing it. These are: Augustine’s account of its composition in the Retractations; the perceived change from an optimistic, classical emphasis on the ‘facilitas’ (easiness) of doing good in book one to a pessimistic, Pauline account of the ‘difficultas’ (difficulty, impossibility) of doing good in book three; and the use of On Free Choice by Augustine and his opponents in the later Pelagian controversy.
Steven Vickers
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198566519
- eISBN:
- 9780191713927
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198566519.003.0014
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Logic / Computer Science / Mathematical Philosophy
This chapter discusses the Tychonoff Theorem with respect to point-free topology from the point of view of both topos-valid and predicative mathematics. A new proof of the infinitary Tychonoff ...
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This chapter discusses the Tychonoff Theorem with respect to point-free topology from the point of view of both topos-valid and predicative mathematics. A new proof of the infinitary Tychonoff Theorem is given using predicative, choice-free methods for possibly undecidable index set. It yields a complete description of the finite basic covers of the product. In contrast to the formal-topological treatment previously given by Negri and Valentini, who followed Coquand's first paper on this subject, the index set of the product under consideration need not be decidable in this chapter's proof. While a more recent approach by Coquand is based on the assumption that each locale under consideration is presented by a distributive lattice of generators, this chapter does not assume the presence of any such presentation. In passing, it highlights the differences and connections between the point-set and the point-free approaches to topology, and between the major varieties of the latter, locale theory, and formal topology.Less
This chapter discusses the Tychonoff Theorem with respect to point-free topology from the point of view of both topos-valid and predicative mathematics. A new proof of the infinitary Tychonoff Theorem is given using predicative, choice-free methods for possibly undecidable index set. It yields a complete description of the finite basic covers of the product. In contrast to the formal-topological treatment previously given by Negri and Valentini, who followed Coquand's first paper on this subject, the index set of the product under consideration need not be decidable in this chapter's proof. While a more recent approach by Coquand is based on the assumption that each locale under consideration is presented by a distributive lattice of generators, this chapter does not assume the presence of any such presentation. In passing, it highlights the differences and connections between the point-set and the point-free approaches to topology, and between the major varieties of the latter, locale theory, and formal topology.
Richard Swinburne
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199271672
- eISBN:
- 9780191709357
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Religion
It is good that there should be a world in which agents have the opportunity to choose freely to benefit or harm each other, especially in respect of their power, knowledge, and character. It is good ...
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It is good that there should be a world in which agents have the opportunity to choose freely to benefit or harm each other, especially in respect of their power, knowledge, and character. It is good too that in more limited ways animals should help and harm each other, although not as a result of a free choice. Our world is in this way providential, and that provides a further argument for God; if there is a God, we have reason to expect all this, but otherwise not. Death is not as such as evil, but merely the end of a good state.Less
It is good that there should be a world in which agents have the opportunity to choose freely to benefit or harm each other, especially in respect of their power, knowledge, and character. It is good too that in more limited ways animals should help and harm each other, although not as a result of a free choice. Our world is in this way providential, and that provides a further argument for God; if there is a God, we have reason to expect all this, but otherwise not. Death is not as such as evil, but merely the end of a good state.
Isaiah Berlin
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199249893
- eISBN:
- 9780191598807
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019924989X.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
This lecture explored the tension between liberty and one view of knowledge. Berlin presented Mill not only as an exponent of determinism and an associated consequentialism, but also as someone who ...
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This lecture explored the tension between liberty and one view of knowledge. Berlin presented Mill not only as an exponent of determinism and an associated consequentialism, but also as someone who came to recognize that this doctrine did not fit the facts of experience, and who emphasized, especially, free choice and the importance of negative liberty in society.Less
This lecture explored the tension between liberty and one view of knowledge. Berlin presented Mill not only as an exponent of determinism and an associated consequentialism, but also as someone who came to recognize that this doctrine did not fit the facts of experience, and who emphasized, especially, free choice and the importance of negative liberty in society.
Sandra Visser and Thomas Williams
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195309386
- eISBN:
- 9780199852123
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309386.003.0012
- Subject:
- Religion, Philosophy of Religion
This chapter discusses Anselm's theory of free choice. Free choice, understood as “the power to preserve rectitude of will for its own sake”, requires the absence of causal necessity. But what is ...
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This chapter discusses Anselm's theory of free choice. Free choice, understood as “the power to preserve rectitude of will for its own sake”, requires the absence of causal necessity. But what is more important to Anselm's account of free choice is the teleological element. Because “rectitude of will preserved for its own sake” is his definition of justice, free choice is simply the power to be just.Less
This chapter discusses Anselm's theory of free choice. Free choice, understood as “the power to preserve rectitude of will for its own sake”, requires the absence of causal necessity. But what is more important to Anselm's account of free choice is the teleological element. Because “rectitude of will preserved for its own sake” is his definition of justice, free choice is simply the power to be just.
Sandra Visser and Thomas Williams
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195309386
- eISBN:
- 9780199852123
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309386.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Philosophy of Religion
This book offers a brief introduction to the life and thought of Saint Anselm (c. 1033–1109). Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury for the last sixteen years of his life, is one of the foremost ...
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This book offers a brief introduction to the life and thought of Saint Anselm (c. 1033–1109). Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury for the last sixteen years of his life, is one of the foremost philosopher-theologians of the Middle Ages. His keen and rigorous thinking earned him the title “The Father of Scholasticism”, and his influence is discernible in figures as various as Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, the voluntarists of the late-13th and 14th centuries, and the Protestant reformers. Part I of this book lays out the framework of Anselm's thought: his approach to what he calls “the reason of faith”, his account of thought and language, and his theory of truth. Part II focuses on Anselm's account of God and the divine attributes, and it shows how Anselm applies his theory of language and thought to develop a theological semantics that at once respects divine transcendence and allows for the possibility of divine rational knowledge. In Part III, the book turns from the heavenly to the animal. It elucidates Anselm's theory of modality and his understanding of free choice, an idea that was, for Anselm, embedded in his conception of justice. The book concludes with a discussion of Incarnation, Atonement, and original sin, as the chapters examine Anselm's argument that the death of a God-man is the only possible remedy for human injustice.Less
This book offers a brief introduction to the life and thought of Saint Anselm (c. 1033–1109). Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury for the last sixteen years of his life, is one of the foremost philosopher-theologians of the Middle Ages. His keen and rigorous thinking earned him the title “The Father of Scholasticism”, and his influence is discernible in figures as various as Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, the voluntarists of the late-13th and 14th centuries, and the Protestant reformers. Part I of this book lays out the framework of Anselm's thought: his approach to what he calls “the reason of faith”, his account of thought and language, and his theory of truth. Part II focuses on Anselm's account of God and the divine attributes, and it shows how Anselm applies his theory of language and thought to develop a theological semantics that at once respects divine transcendence and allows for the possibility of divine rational knowledge. In Part III, the book turns from the heavenly to the animal. It elucidates Anselm's theory of modality and his understanding of free choice, an idea that was, for Anselm, embedded in his conception of justice. The book concludes with a discussion of Incarnation, Atonement, and original sin, as the chapters examine Anselm's argument that the death of a God-man is the only possible remedy for human injustice.
R. E. Jennings
- Published in print:
- 1995
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195075243
- eISBN:
- 9780199852970
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195075243.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language
This book presents a study of the English word or, and the logical operators variously proposed to present its meaning. Although there are indisputably disjunctive uses of or in English, it is a ...
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This book presents a study of the English word or, and the logical operators variously proposed to present its meaning. Although there are indisputably disjunctive uses of or in English, it is a mistake to suppose that logical disjunction represents its core meaning. Or is descended from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning second, a form which survives in such expressions as ‘every other day’. Its disjunctive uses arise through metalinguistic applications of an intermediate adverbial meaning which is conjunctive rather than disjunctive in character. These conjunctive uses have puzzled philosophers and logicians, and have been discussed extensively under such headings as ‘free choice permission’. This study examines the textbook myths that have clouded our understanding of how or and other ‘logical’ vocabulary comes to have something approaching its logical meaning in natural languages. It considers the various historical conceptions of disjunction and its place in logic from the Stoics to the present day.Less
This book presents a study of the English word or, and the logical operators variously proposed to present its meaning. Although there are indisputably disjunctive uses of or in English, it is a mistake to suppose that logical disjunction represents its core meaning. Or is descended from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning second, a form which survives in such expressions as ‘every other day’. Its disjunctive uses arise through metalinguistic applications of an intermediate adverbial meaning which is conjunctive rather than disjunctive in character. These conjunctive uses have puzzled philosophers and logicians, and have been discussed extensively under such headings as ‘free choice permission’. This study examines the textbook myths that have clouded our understanding of how or and other ‘logical’ vocabulary comes to have something approaching its logical meaning in natural languages. It considers the various historical conceptions of disjunction and its place in logic from the Stoics to the present day.
Rebecca J. Cook, Bernard M. Dickens, and Mahmoud F. Fathalla
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199241323
- eISBN:
- 9780191696909
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199241323.003.0027
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
This chapter identifies rights that could be applied to advance reproductive and sexual health. The human rights are clustered under the following interests in reproductive and sexual health, which ...
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This chapter identifies rights that could be applied to advance reproductive and sexual health. The human rights are clustered under the following interests in reproductive and sexual health, which are shown in the horizontal subsections of the table: life, survival, security, and sexuality; reproductive self-determination, and free choice of maternity; health and the benefits of scientific progress; non-discrimination and due respect for difference; and information, education, and decision-making.Less
This chapter identifies rights that could be applied to advance reproductive and sexual health. The human rights are clustered under the following interests in reproductive and sexual health, which are shown in the horizontal subsections of the table: life, survival, security, and sexuality; reproductive self-determination, and free choice of maternity; health and the benefits of scientific progress; non-discrimination and due respect for difference; and information, education, and decision-making.
Blair Worden
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264706
- eISBN:
- 9780191734557
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264706.003.0001
- Subject:
- Literature, Milton Studies
In 1660, upon the Restoration of Charles to the English throne, John Milton went into hiding. His treatises Eikonoklastes and Defensio were condemned and burned. Milton faced the prospect of public ...
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In 1660, upon the Restoration of Charles to the English throne, John Milton went into hiding. His treatises Eikonoklastes and Defensio were condemned and burned. Milton faced the prospect of public execution, but escaped with a brief imprisonment. Three-quarters of a century later, the Milton once vilified for his political polemics was embraced by the public for his verses, which had risen high in England's favour. This chapter discusses Milton's purposes and priorities. The ideal of teaching is, according to Milton, through the ‘delight’ of poetry; for him poetry must function to deplore the general Relapses of Kingdoms and States from justice and God's true worship. Just as with poetry, he looked at prose to instruct the readers by affording them delight, and by calming the perturbation of mind that can impede their reception of truth. Milton believed that just as poetry can impart virtue through charm and smoothness of sounds, prose draws on eloquence to charm the multitude to love what is truly good. In his writings, he pursued the conception of liberty, the strife between good and evil, the principle of free choice, and the sinfulness of the popery. Milton tailored his Restoration poems as bulwarks against the wickedness of the court and nation. His poems served as sharp checks and sour instructions, in the absence of which, many people would have been lost if they were not speedily reclaimed. Some of Milton's works of enlightenment and corrections were Paradise Lost, The Reason of Church Government, and History of Britain.Less
In 1660, upon the Restoration of Charles to the English throne, John Milton went into hiding. His treatises Eikonoklastes and Defensio were condemned and burned. Milton faced the prospect of public execution, but escaped with a brief imprisonment. Three-quarters of a century later, the Milton once vilified for his political polemics was embraced by the public for his verses, which had risen high in England's favour. This chapter discusses Milton's purposes and priorities. The ideal of teaching is, according to Milton, through the ‘delight’ of poetry; for him poetry must function to deplore the general Relapses of Kingdoms and States from justice and God's true worship. Just as with poetry, he looked at prose to instruct the readers by affording them delight, and by calming the perturbation of mind that can impede their reception of truth. Milton believed that just as poetry can impart virtue through charm and smoothness of sounds, prose draws on eloquence to charm the multitude to love what is truly good. In his writings, he pursued the conception of liberty, the strife between good and evil, the principle of free choice, and the sinfulness of the popery. Milton tailored his Restoration poems as bulwarks against the wickedness of the court and nation. His poems served as sharp checks and sour instructions, in the absence of which, many people would have been lost if they were not speedily reclaimed. Some of Milton's works of enlightenment and corrections were Paradise Lost, The Reason of Church Government, and History of Britain.
Christopher Tilmouth
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264706
- eISBN:
- 9780191734557
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264706.003.0003
- Subject:
- Literature, Milton Studies
Although poetry's morally instructive purpose was a Renaissance commonplace, Milton developed a detailed conception of what it meant. He argued that poems have the power to ‘inbreed in the great ...
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Although poetry's morally instructive purpose was a Renaissance commonplace, Milton developed a detailed conception of what it meant. He argued that poems have the power to ‘inbreed in the great people the seeds of virtue and public civility, to allay the perturbation of mind, and set the affections in right tune’. Milton was a moralizing poet who was sensitive to the challenge of knowing oneself and staying true to the proper rational ideas. His epics and poems were pegged on the ethic of rational choosing. This chapter examines the kinds of moral knowledge upon which free choice must hang and the capacity of Milton's Adam and Eve to make rational choices. It examines Milton's theodicy, which argued that possession of rational powers enables people to choose between good and evil. The chapter assesses how experience influences the capacity of man for self-determination and choice according to Milton's theodicy. In it, three of Milton's poems, which sum up his moral imagination, are examined: Paradise Lost, Reason of the Church Government, and Areopagitica.Less
Although poetry's morally instructive purpose was a Renaissance commonplace, Milton developed a detailed conception of what it meant. He argued that poems have the power to ‘inbreed in the great people the seeds of virtue and public civility, to allay the perturbation of mind, and set the affections in right tune’. Milton was a moralizing poet who was sensitive to the challenge of knowing oneself and staying true to the proper rational ideas. His epics and poems were pegged on the ethic of rational choosing. This chapter examines the kinds of moral knowledge upon which free choice must hang and the capacity of Milton's Adam and Eve to make rational choices. It examines Milton's theodicy, which argued that possession of rational powers enables people to choose between good and evil. The chapter assesses how experience influences the capacity of man for self-determination and choice according to Milton's theodicy. In it, three of Milton's poems, which sum up his moral imagination, are examined: Paradise Lost, Reason of the Church Government, and Areopagitica.
